Later Roman Empire

Two years after the Treaty of Belgrade war broke out with Persia because of Nadir Kuli Khan's attempt on Mesopotamia, and it continued from 1743 to 1746 with varying fortunes. When peace was signed Turkey retained the frontier fixed at the time of Murad IV. and Persia procured a few privileges for her pilgrims to the holy places. Turkey refrained from taking part in the War of Austrian Succession in spite of the efforts of France, and she maintained a peaceful attitude during the disorders which followed the death of Nadir Kuli Khan in Persia. The sultan died in 1754 and was succeeded by his brother Osman III. The only noteworthy events of the latter's reign were the first Wahhabi rising and the issuing of the first order for veiling women's faces.

Mustafa III. (1757-1773).—Koja Raghib Pasha, the grand vizier at the accession of Mustafa III., sent an envoy to Berlin, and a treaty of friendship and commerce was signed on March 12, 1761. While he was alive Koja Raghib Pasha kept the sultan out of war. He controlled Turkey's foreign affairs while the sul tan, who was of a fanatical disposition, concerned himself with the dresses and the veils of women. He projected an alliance between Turkey and France, but France and England having differences over the Indian possessions, such a treaty might have affected the English interests among the Muslims and in consequence Porter, the British ambassador in Istamboul, used his influence against it.

Before long events in Poland drew Turkey into the general war. Catherine II. of Russia tried to put her favourite, Stanislas Poniatowski, on the Polish throne on the death of Augustus III. The Poles complained to the Porte and urged Turkey to fight Russia. The sultan at first contented himself with protests, but Russia had violated the neutrality of the Kabardia, while in Serbia, Moldavia and Montenegro the Russian monks carried on seditious propaganda against Turkey. Turkey issued an ultimatum to Rus sia demanding that she withdraw her army from Poland. On her refusal war was declared. Turkey procured the neutrality of Eng land, Holland and Sweden in this war, and Austria undertook to remain neutral in return for certain privileges. Nevertheless Tur key had entered the war without preparations. The Turks were first defeated by the Russian forces in Georgia, Crimea and Kabardia, and on the Dniester; the Russian Baltic fleet under Alexei Orloff reached Morea, and incited the inhabitants to revolt. The Turkish fleet was burnt near Cheshme by the Russian fleet under the command of a Scottish admiral. The Turks were de feated in Kartal by Russia, who invaded the principalities, and reduced the fortresses on the delta of the Danube and on the Dniester. In 1771 the Crimea was conquered by the Russians.

Although the Austrians had undertaken to mediate and to assist the Turks, they preferred to take a share in the partition of Poland. After a fruitless conference at Focshani, the Russian rep resentative at the Conference of Bucharest (1773) issued an ultimatum demanding the free navigation of the Black sea and the Aegean sea for Russian trading vessels and warships, the cession of Kilburun, and the right to protect the Orthodox subjects of the Sultan. Turkey refused these terms, and the war continued, the Turks fighting hard in Silistria and Varna. Mustafa died in 1773.

Abdul-Hamid I. (1773-1789) .--Abdul-Hamid,

his successor who had been kept in a cage for 43 years, was weak in his mind. The abuses and disorders in the army and the palace were at their worst, and the situation at home gave no hope of retrieving the external misfortunes of the state. Turkey refused the mediation of Prussia, but when the Russian army reached Shumla she was forced to negotiate peace. The Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji was signed on the anniversary of the Treaty of Pruth (July 21, which had been disastrous to Russia. This was the most humiliating treaty the Turks had ever signed. The treaty was the first political manifestation of the Eastern Question (q.v.), and the Turkish desire for reform on Western lines dates from this disastrous event. The Tatars from Poland to the Caspian sea were given their independence, the sultan merely retaining his religious leadership as Caliph. Russia retained Kilburun, Kerch and Yenikale, while Akkerman, Ismail, Ochakov and Bessarabia were restored to Turkey. Moldavia and Walachia became semi independent states under Turkey, excepting for the right of Rus sia to intervene in the appointment and dismissal of the hospodars. The imperial title of padishah was definitively conceded to the Russian tsars. The Black sea and the Mediterranean were made free for commerce and navigation to both countries, and Turkey was to pay an indemnity of 15,000 purses to Russia. The most important clause from the Turkish point of view was that which gave Russia the right to protect the Orthodox subjects of Turkey. Originally this treaty only accorded to Russia the right to build a church in Constantinople and the right of making representations for the protection of the officials of this church, and Turkey under took to protect the Christians herself. (Article 7.) This clause was later interpreted as an inclusive protection of the Orthodox Christians, and played a disastrous part in the subsequent history of Turkey. Poland, who originally caused the war, was not men tioned, having been partitioned in 1772.