Later Roman Empire

Selim III. (1789-1807).

Selim III. was the only prince of the last centuries who had not been caged, which gave him ar opportunity of greater knowledge and a more normal view of the world. He was a passionate admirer of French culture, and he wanted Turkey to be equal with the Western Powers in every branch of progress. It was in Selim's mind that New Turkey originated, and with him the struggle for reform and progress began seriously, at the price of so many Turkish martyrs. He hoped to bring the war to a victorious end and so acquire the necessary prestige for his reforms. But it was not to be. When the news of the Russian victory of Kalas reached Constantinople he called a council, enumerated the causes of defeat and dis aster, and proposed internal reform as the only remedy. He in sisted that the people should elect their own kethudas (mayors) and notables (ayans) without the interference of the governors, that an end should be put to the unlawful tribute which the rayas were made to pay, that the army and the administration should be organized on a Western basis.

In the meantime one Austrian army defeated the Turks in Ser bia and captured Belgrade, while another in conjunction with the Russian army captured Foschani. On Aug. 4, 1791, the new Aus trian emperor, Leopold, who was unfavourable to the Russian alliance, made a peace with Turkey at Sistova through the media tion of England, Prussia and Holland, by which Belgrade was restored to Turkey. But Russia, after defeating the Swedes, who were Turkey's allies with Prussia, was free to carry out her policy of extension in Turkey, and the war continued. It was about this time that William Pitt in England proposed the policy of preserv ing the integrity of the Turkish empire. It appeared first in the form of friendly advice to Russia to make peace with Turkey, which was rejected by Catherine II. Turkey after several reverses on the field, made peace with Russia in 1792 at Jassy, the Dniester becoming the Turkish frontier in Europe.

Selim continued his reforms, especially in the army. He formed a new corps, but in order to disarm the jealousy of the janissaries he affiliated the new corps to them. Military schools were opened, the fleet reorganized, and instructors brought from Europe. But his progress was interrupted by the war with France (1798). Bonaparte attacked Egypt, more indeed as a move against Eng land than against Turkey, as his aim was the closing of the route to India. Turkey fought against France in Alliance with England and Russia. Napoleon was beaten in Syria, the French fleet destroyed by Nelson at Aboukir, and the Ionian islands captured by the Turkish and Russian fleets. Peace was concluded with France in 1802. The reactionary governors whose interests were injured by the new reforms continued to cause disorder in every part of the empire. Pasvan Oglou, the governor of Vidin, drove the peaceful rayas to revolt by his persecutions, and the insur gents chose Karageorge (George Petrovic) as leader and suc ceeded in taking Belgrade. An army was sent to punish Pasvan Oglou, without result. The revolt of the Wahhabis in Nejd became another source of anxiety which continued till the time of Mah moud II. A marked renewal of trouble broke out with Russia over the principalities. Constantine Ypsilanti and Alexander Murusi, hospodars of Walachia and Moldavia, two instruments of Russia, had caused risings against the Porte which had led Turkey to dismiss them without the consent of Russia, thus vio lating the agreement of 1802. Russia and England protested, and the two were replaced. But, encouraged by the French ambassa dor, General Sebastiani, Turkey declared war against Russia, although the British ambassador threatened to join Russia against Turkey (Nov. 6, 1806). The British fleet passed the Straits, an chored off Istamboul and delivered an ultimatum, ordering Turkey to dismiss the French ambassador within 24 hours and to make peace with Russia. The Porte, encouraged by Sebastiani and by

popular indignation at the presence of the ships, decided to resist. The entire population of Constantinople helped to range a thou sand guns along both sides of the Bosphorus in one day. The British fleet retired considerably damaged.

In the meantime the reforms and the progress of the new army were leading the janissaries and the corrupt officials to make desperate efforts in opposition, and they were supported by most of the reactionary governors. In 1807 the garrisons on the Black Sea rose, under Kabakji Mustafa, and killed their officers and all those who were known to be reformists. The rebellion became general and the abolition of the new troops was demanded. The concessions made by the sultan in the hope of preventing further bloodshed only encouraged the rebels to make greater demands, and finally they dethroned him. General Sebastiani is charged by the Turkish historians with inciting the janissaries.

Mustafa IV. and Mahmoud II., 1808-1839.

Selim's suc cessor, Mustafa, abolished all the reforms, and anarchy continued during his reign of 14 months. In 1807, during the negotiations between the Russian emperor Alexander and Napoleon at Tilsit for the partition of Turkey, Napoleon undertook to mediate peace between Russia and Turkey, if Alexander would withdraw his troops from Walachia and Moldavia. An armistice was signed in Aug. 1807, the Turkish army retiring to Adrianople. In the winter of 1807 a committee composed of the adherents of reform. in Rusjuk, persuaded Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, who had dis tinguished himself in the Russian war, to march on Constantinople with an army of 20,000 Kirja-Ali troops, with the object of reinstating Selim and his reforms. Selim was killed by the janis saries before Alemdar's army could enter the palace. His nephew Mahmoud, a youth brought up in the tradition of reform, was saved by Jevri Kalfa, a woman in the palace who threw ashes in the eyes of the murderers and enabled the future Sultan to escape by the roof. Mustafa IV. was dethroned and Mahmoud II., the last survivor of his line, ascended the throne. Mahmoud II. appointed Mustafa Pasha grand vizier and issued a royal proclamation ordering him to treat the people and their rayas with justice and to re-establish order. As the Russian question was not settled and the principal governors were all trying to instigate revolts by declaring the reforms to be anti-religious, and thereby exciting fanatical resistance, Mahmoud II. based his arguments on religious grounds and demonstrated the necessity of education and reform in the name of Islam. Alemdar Mustafa Pasha called a council in Constantinople to which he invited notables and influential men from all over the country. The council de cided that the new troops, under European instructors, were to be re-established under the name of "Seymen-i-Jedid": that the janissary organization was to be retained but reformed, those only nominally on the register and receiving pay without serving to be dismissed; and that the authority of the sultan was to be permanent. The new grand vizier managed to restore compara tive order and began his reforms seriously, but while the Kirja-Ali troops who were loyal to him were on their Bairam leave the janissaries attacked his home at night. He pretended to parley with them asking to have his womenfolk removed to a safe place, of ter which he promised to give himself up. But when the women had been removed he opened fire on the rebels from his windows and fought them to the last shot, after which he blew himself up in the powder-magazine under his house. The janissaries, once more masters of the situation, resumed their massacres of the new troops, and forced the sultan to cancel all the reforms.