Later Roman Empire

Abdul-Mejid I. (1839-1861).

Abdul-Mejid ascended the throne at 16 when Mohammed Ali Pasha of Egypt seemed on the verge of seizing Turkey and the empire seemed about to dis solve into its elements. The army, the Government and the sultan were helpless and the Turkish fleet was handed over to Mohammed Ali Pasha by the treachery of Admiral Ahmed Pasha. But to prevent Russia from using the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi for her own purposes the great Powers decided to intervene in the Turko Egyptian conflict and called a conference in London. France, who had supported Mohammed Ali Pasha, took no part in the final settlement, but Russia for the purpose of breaking the entente between England and France waived her claims under the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi and joined the concert. By the "protocol de cloture," which was signed on July io, 1840, the governorship of Egypt became hereditary in Mohammed Ali's family without undermining the sovereign rights of Turkey. The same conference signed the "protocol des detroits," on July 13, 1840, by which the sultan was to close the Straits to warships of all the Powers, and the Black sea to Russian warships.

The schemes for reform which Selim III. and Mahmoud II. had only been able partially to realize were to be more fully worked out by Abdul-Mejid I. Mustafa Reshid Pasha, the Turkish foreign minister and ambassador to London, returned. He was the greatest statesman and Westernizer of the reform period, and he personally prepared a tanzimat or vast plan of reforms and made the sultan sign and issue it under the name of Gulhani-hatti-humayouni (royal decree of Gulhane) as it was publicly announced from the park of Gulhane. From this decree dates the fundamental change of Turkey from the old system based on nomadic principles to that of a modern state. Like the preceding decrees, in order that it might disarm fanatical opinion, it also emphasized that all progress was in accordance with Islam. It undertook to issue laws conforming with the age ; to establish security of life, property and honour (no one was to be punished without trial) ; to remodel every branch of the administration; and to accord perfect equality to all Ottoman subjects of whatever race or creed. This meant a great difference for the Christians. Though they had religious and communal freedom by the firman of the conqueror, the political complica tions caused by the Separatist tendencies, and the massacre of the Muslims in Morea by the Greeks, had aroused intense hatred and made their position difficult, and even dangerous. The attempt of the tanzimat to establish them as equal citizens helped to unite them with the ruling race and before long the Christians shared all the offices in the administration, even up to the rank of cabinet minister. Mustafa Reshid Pasha with a few convinced

and Westernised men around him made gigantic efforts to enforce the new principles in every department.

Mahmoud's military organization was extended by engaging more foreign instructors and opening more military schools. The most important change was the recruiting law, which reduced mili tary service, which had hitherto been for an indefinite time, to a limited period. The Christians were exempted from military serv ice. A body of gendarmerie was instituted.

In addition to the only existing educational institutions, that of the ulema and the schools maintained by private donations, the council of education founded and multiplied State schools, both primary and secondary, and tried to unify and centralize educa tion by sending superintendents to the provinces to carry out the state system. Commercial courts were opened. As the civil and penal cases were sent to the Sheria courts, a school for judges was opened and attached to the Sheik-ul-Islam's office.

Permanent ambassadors were appointed from among the best statesmen and sent to European capitals ; this helped to create friendly relationships with the western Powers. The success of the reforms, which were carried out for the first time without re sorting to terrorist methods, was forming a centralized and effi cient government, which naturally aroused great sympathy for Turkey and hope for her future. The only international con troversy arose when in 1848-1849 Turkey, true to her traditions, refused to give up the Polish and Hungarian refugees. She had England's support in this act. The difference with Persia over the frontier question was settled for the time being by the Treaty of Erzerum (1848), by English and Russian mediation.

The Holy Places and the Crimean War.

The possibility of a strong and reformed Turkey made Russia uneasy. Since the time of Peter the Great and Catherine II. she had considered her self the rightful heir to the declining Turkish State. The tsar, who went to London in 1844, proposed to England the partition of Tur key. England was to receive Crete and Egypt, Constantinople was to he a free city, and the Balkan States were to be autonomous under Russia. Suspicious of the Russian designs, England refused to solve the Eastern Question by so drastic a measure. But the question came up again in 185o through a quarrel between the Catholic and Orthodox monks about the Holy Places in Palestine.