On the confused arena of German politics, the struggle for ascendency was kept up between A. and Prussia. In Oct., 1830, the two powers were armed and ready to come to blows; but the bold and determined policy of Schwartzenberg prevailed, and Prussia gave way. The points in dispute it might be difficult for any but a German to under stand, even if it were worth trying. See GERMANY, HESSE:OASSEL. The result was, that Prussia's scheme of a union was given up, and also A.'s admission with all her terri tories into the German confederation; and in 1851, the old diet was restored. After the death of Schwartzenberg, the foreign policy of A. was more conciliatory, and her inter ference in German affairs less dictatorial. Prussia and A., after Dee., 1852, were more friendly, on the whole, though the war in Italy gave rise to considerable ill-feeling between the two powers. In Feb., 1853, a commercial treaty was concluded, which was of the utmost consequence to the prosperity of A., as removing a great part of the obstructions to her commerce with the rest of Germany.
In 1S53, a difference took place between A. and Turkey, which formed, as it were, a prelude to the war in the Crimea. In the quarrel between the Montenegrins and the porte, A. took the part of the Montenegrins; she had also complaints as to the infringe ment of rights possessed by her on the Adriatic coast, and regarding the treatment of Christians in Turkey. The threatening mission of count Leiningen. Feb., 1853, procured redress of these grievances. As if following up this movement, Russia came forward as the special protector of the Greek Christians of the Ottoman empire, and made demands on the porte which were held inconsistent with his sovereign rights. It was the interest of A., as well as of the rest of Europe, to maintain the integrity of the Ottoman empire; but although she united with England and France in endeavoring to settle the question by negotiation, when the war broke out, her peculiar relations to Russia led her to remain neutral during the contest.
The conduct of A. in Italy, especially after 1849, was such as to make that country a "standing menace to Europe.". The government of A. in .that portion of Italy of which she obtained possession by the treaty of 1815, was far from but what was chiefly complained of by the other powers was her interference in the affairs of the inde pendent states of the peninsula. By means of secret treaties (copies of which were laid
before the British houses of pailiament this year. 18595, A. obtained a most undue intlu ence in Parma, Tuscany, Modena, the States of the Church, and in the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. That influence was of course exercised in the interests of despotism, and in opposition to the welfare of the people, whose wishes their rulers, backed by Austrian troops, were enabled to set at defiance. The position of A. in Italy was canvassed at the meetings which followed the signing of the treaty of peace at Paris in 1856, hut nothing resulted from the discussions. Sardinia seeing herself gradually environed by, and afraid to fall a victim to the prevailing Austrianism, after all remonstrances of a peaceful kind had failed, began to arm. A. demanded her immediate disarmament, on pain of war; but Sardinia, whose army was swelled with volunteers from every part of the peninsula, and who had previously entered into a treaty, offensive and defensive, with France, refused. A. accordingly commenced hostilities by crossing the Ticino on the 29th of April, 1859. On the 3d May, France, as the ally of Sardinia, formally declared war against A.; but in anticipation of what was to follow, she had several days before dispatched troops into Piedmont, The Austrian troops were beaten in every engage ment that followed, and so effectually, that on the 6th July, the emperor, who latterly had taken the chief command of his army, was fain to conclude an armistice with the emperor Napoleon, who also commanded in person. On the 12th of the same month, the two potentates met at Villafranca, and agreed to come to terms of peace, the chief con ditions of which were to be the cession of Lombardy to Sardinia. See ITALY. In 1866, a short and bloody war occurred between A. on the one hand, and Italy and Prussia on the other (see GERMANY), issuing in the cession of Venice to Italy, and the dual reorgan ization of the empire as described above. Since then, the Sclavonic Bohemians have continued to struggle in vain for the separate crown rights of their ancient kingdom, The part taken by the government in the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78, which led to the occupation of Bosnia and Herze,govina, provoked very bitter feeling in the Hungarian section of the empire.