CARDINAL VIRTUES (Lat. cardinalis, chief, from cardo, a hinge). The C. V. of the ancients were justice, prudence, temperance, fortitude. They were so called because the whole of human virtue was supposed to hinge or turn upon them. In other words, they were considered as a full and comprehensive classification of man's various duties.
This mode of dividing the virtues is to be found as far back as Socrates. Tho ancient moralists treated under ethics the whole sum of human duty and virtue. Thus, Aristotle considers the great problem of the science to be the determination of man's highest good, together with the means of realizing it. Hence, lie includes both the social virtues and the prudential regard to the welfare of the individual in the same scheme. Of the four C.V., it will be seen that the first, justice, is the social virtue; that prudence (which, properly speaking, includes temperance also) regards the well-being of the indi vidual; while fortitude is necessary to both. This last was a virtue greatly esteemed in the ancient world, each one's lot being much less secure than with us in the present day; it was impossible to say what sufferings might be in store for the most prosperously sit uated of men.
Dr. Whcwell has made an attempt to correct the more obvious defects of the classifi cation. and has substituted one which he deems free from those defects. The most notable omission, in the ancient scheme, judged from the modern point of view, is the absence of all reference, either expressly or by implication, to the virtue of goodness or benevolence. This was characteristic of the pagan moralists; for although good deeds were abundantly practiced among the ancients, they did not account it a part of human virtue to flow out spontaneously in every kind of active benevolence, including the most wicked and worthless among the objects of it. Aristotle, in discussing the various acts and outgoings of friendship, never loses sight of the reciprocal obligations on the other side; so that when a rich man befriends. with his wealth, one that is poor, the inequality must be made good by a greater amount of honor or respect on the part of him that is so befriended.
Accordingly, to adapt the classification to the altered point of view, benevolence hag to be added to the list. This is Dr. Whewell's first virtue; the others are justice, truth, purity, and order. But the scheme, as thus amended, is scarcely less objectionable than before. The virtue named last, order', which means obedience to authority, cannot but contain a very large portion of all the rest; seeing that justice, truth, etc., are enjoined by positive law. Then, what is understood by purity, including the control of the two powerful appetites, hunger and sex, is partly prudential and partly social.
The ethical discussions of modern times may be very much aided, if we divide the totality of human virtue on the following plan. There are three distinct classes of human actions, which are all approved of or accounted virtuous, but on different grounds, and in a different manner.
1. There are actions which are forbidden by society under penalties; in other words, men are punished for committing them. Such are theft, breach of bargain, slander, violence to the person, and all the offenses against our fellow-men that are prohibited by the law of the land. The avoiding of all these actions is signified to be a part of our duty, by the suffering inflicted on the doers of them. The law fines, imprisons, or puts to death those who will not conform to its regulations.
The law of the land is not the only power that prescribes conduct enforced by penal ties. The public opinion of the country at large forbids certain actions, and punishes transgressors by excluding them from social intercourse; such, for example, are acts of unchastity, more especially when committed by women. There are also codes enacted by particular societies, as the code of honor among gentlemen, which constitutes some actions offenses that are not so by law, or by universal opinion. Cowardice is one of the qualities most obnoxious tc the code of honor.