The magnificent river-system of China is represented by those noble twin streams, the Iloang-ho or Yellow river, and the Yang-tse-kiang, which, springing from the same water-shed, the eastern mountains of Thibet, are widely separated in their mid course, but enter the sea within 2' of each other. The former has its source in 351` n. lat. and about 96° e. long.; and after a very tortuous course, empties itself into the ocean in lat. 34°.* It is a "mighty, impracticable, turbid, furious stream" for the most part, and little adapted for Chinese navigation. But the river most beloved by the Chinese is the Yang-tse-kiang, or "son of the ocean"—more correctly translated," the son that spreads " —which name is only applied to it by the natives below the commencement of the delta; for above• that it is called simply Ta-kiano. or Great river. The basin drained by it is estimated at 750,000 sq. miles. Of the other rivers that water the country, the Peiho in the n., and the Choo-keang in the s., are the most noteworthy.
The principal lakes of China are five in number—viz., the Tung-ting-hu, in 113° e. long. with a circumference of about 220 m.; the Poyang-hu, in 116 e. long., 90 m. in length by 20 in breadth; the Hung-tsin-liii, in Keang-su; the Tsau-hu, between Ngan kin-fu and Nankin; and the Tai-hu, in 120° e. long. On these lakes, artificially con structed floating islands, with houses, fields, and inhabitants, animals, and birds, are sometimes seen.
The Grand Canal has very greatly facilitated the internal navigation of the country. Until lately the great annual grain-fleet, with its 430,000 tons of rice for the use of the capital, passed from the s. to the neighborhood of Pekin by this great water-way; thus avoiding the storms and pirates of the coast, but the alteration already mentioned in the course of the Hoang-lio, has rendered it comparatively useless. It connects Tien tsin in Chih-le with Hang-chow in Clie-keang; though the canal proper commences in Shantung, and its total length is about 650 miles.
Another world-famous structure is the Great Wall—called Wan-li-chang (myriad-mile wall) by the Chinese—which was built by the first emperor of the Tsin dynasty about 220 B.C., as a protection against the Tartar tribes. It traverses the northern boundary of China, extending from 3i° e. to 15° w. of Pekin, and is carried over the highest hills, through the deepest valleys, across rivers and every other natural obstacle. The length of this great barrier is, according td McCulloch, 1250 m. Including a parapet of 5 ft., the total height of the wall is 20 ft. ; thickness at the base, 25 ft.: and at the top, 15 ft. Towers or bastions occur at intervals of about 100 yds. These are 40 ft. square at the base, and 30 ft. at the summit, which is 37 ft., and in some instances 48 or 50 ft., from the ground. Earth inclosed in brickwork forms the mass of the wall; but for more than half its length it is little else than a heap of gravel and rubbish.
high lands, where are the sources of the great rivers of China, consist of granitic and metamorphic rocks. These are continued round the s. and s.e. of the country, until they leave a huge basin, through which flow the Yang-tse-kiang and Iloang-ho, occupied by fossiliferous strata. The wild and rugged scenery of the larger portion of China is owing to the predominance of those crystalline and sub-crystalline rocks. The fossiliferous strata exhibit representatives of the various formations. The paleozoic rocks are but sparingly developed in a narrow stripe which runs from near Pekin in a south-westerly curve, to nearly the center of the empire. Cretaceous rocks occur in the valley of the Yang-tse-kiang. Tertiary beds fill up the eastern portion of
the immense basin; while extensive districts to the w. of this region, extending to the crystalline rocks in the extreme w., are covered with modern detritus.
Though no active volcanoes are known to exist except one in Formosa, yet indica tions of volcanic action are not wanting. Salt and hot-water springs are found in Yun nan ; sulphur springs near Foochow; and wells of petroleum in Shen-se and Formosa. The most famous amongst the minerals of China is jade or the yu-stone, obtained chiefly in Yun-nan. Coal, limestone, and porcelain clays are abundant. Precious stones are said to be met with in some districts. In Yun-nan, gold is washed from the sands of the rivers, and in the same province silver-mines are worked; here, too, is obtained the cele brated pe-tung or white copper. All the commoner metals are likewise found in China. Near the city of Ning-po are extensive stone-quarries.
Vegetable Productions.—Our knowledge of the flora of China has been much advanced by the researches of Mr. Fortune; and his works contain valuable notices of the geog raphy, culture, and varieties of the tea-plant, and of the botany of the country generally. The tea-plant (thea viridis and Ikea bokea) is the most important vegetable production of China. See TEA. The tallow-tree (stillingia sebifera), the dryandra cordata or varnish tree, the camphor-tree acturus camphora), the Chinese pine (pious sinensis), the Chinese banyan (ficus nitida), the funereal cypress—introduced into this country by Mr. Fortune —and the mulberry, are amongst the most important trees of China. The cocoa-nut and other palms flourish on the southern coast. Of the bamboo, which grows as far n. as lat. 38°, there are 63 varieties; and it is said that the bamboos of China are more valuable than her mines, and, next to rice and silk, yield the greatest revenue. The various uses to which they are applied is truly astonishing; and, amongst others, the bamboo is famous as an instrument of punishment. The fruits of both the tropical and temperate zones—apples, grapes, pomegranates, mangoes, pine-apples, three species of orange, the lichi, etc.—are found in the country; and camellias, azaleas, and gardenias are natives of the "flowery land." The nymplaca, or water-lily, is greatly prized by the Chinese, both for ornament and in an economical point of view. Agriculture is held in higher estimation in China than, perhaps, any other country in the world. On the first day of each year, a grand state-ceremony is performed in its honor. The emperor, accom panied by his great officers of state, repairs to the sacred field, and, having offered sacri fices on an altar of earth, he traces a furrow with the plough, and his example is followed by princes and ministers. A. like solemnity is celebrated by the governor of every province, who represents the emperor. The agricultural system of the Chinese is rude, but effective; and every inch of arable land is carefully cultivated. Spade-husbandry and irrigation are carried on to a great extent. The Chinese have a strong perception of the value of night-soil as a manure; for, whilst in this country thousands of pounds' worth are annually thrown into the Thames, in China it is everywhere saved, bears a high price, and is collected in a manner exceedingly offensive to European notions. In the northern provinces, the cereals are principally maize, barley, and wheat; but in the south, rice is raised in vast quantities, and forms the staple food of the people. Tobacco and the poppy are also raised in considerable quantities.