In early times, the Chinese do not appear to have been opposed to intercourse with foreigners; but the conduct of the Spaniards and Portuguese between 1520 and 1570 excited their hostility. The Manteli? government restricted British trade and inter course to Canton, where it was carried on through the medium of the hong merchants on the one side, and the East India company on the other. Differences arose, however, from time to time between these two commercial bodies, occasioned chiefly by the exac tions of the mandarins on foreign trade. With a view to a better understanding, the British government despatched to Pekin an embassy under lord Macartney in 1792, and another under lord Amherst in 1816. On the 22d April, 1834, the monopoly of the East India company ceased, and British imperial officers were appointed to carry out the new judicial and fiscal arrangements. Constant dissensions between these and the manda rins continued till the end of the year 1839, when the latter, under pretense of stopping the opium-trade, committed acts of open hostility. A war broke out the following year, at the commencement of which Chinese officials talked of invading England overland, by way of Russia. The imperial government was, however, sufficiently humbled by the 'Middle of the year 1842, and on the 29th Aug., a treaty of peace was signed before Nan kin, by which the ports of Amoy, Fu-chow, Ning-po, and Shang-hae were, in addition to Canton, thrown open to foreign trade. The other most important articles of the treaty provided that the island of Houg-kong should be ceded in perpetuity to her Britannic majesty, her heirs and successors, and that the emperor of China should pay $21,000,000 towards the expenses of the war.
With five free ports, British trade with China soon assumed gigantic proportionsl; and though the Chinese evaded the treaty whenever practicable, no important event occurred to interrupt commercial intercourse till 8th Oct., 1S56, when the authorities at Canton seized the crew of the lorcha Arrow, a vessel registered at Hongkong, and entitled, it was considered, to British protection. Under pressure from the British forces at hand, the imperial commissioner, Yell, delivered up the men, but refused all apology. Yeh continuing obstinate, Canton was stormed (Dec. 28, 1857) by the allied French and English forces, and the Chinese imperial commissioner captured (Jan. 5, 1858). The government of the city was still carried on by Chinese officials, but under the authority of the plenipotentiaries and commander-in-chief. The former now pro ceeded to the n. of China, to put themselves in more direct communication with the imperial government, which still continued obstinate. The forts at the mouth of the Peiho were taken (May 20, 1858), and at length an important treaty was signed at Tien tsin, June 26, 1858, which stipulates that the queen of Great Britain may (art. ii.) appoint diplomatic agents to the court of Pekin, who (art. iii.) shall be allowed to reside
at the capital, where also her majesty may acquire a building site. The Christian religion (art. viii.) shall be protected by the Chinese authorities. British subjects (art. ix.) shall be allowed to travel for pleasure or business to all parts of the interior, under passports issued by their consul. British merchant-ships shall trade (art. x.) upon the Great river (Yang-tze); but as its lower valley is disturbed by outlaws, no port except Chin-keang shall be opened for the present. Chin-keang to be opened in a year from the date of the signing of the treaty.
By this treaty, the vexed question of transit-dues is settled, it being agreed that the British merchant may purchase at the rate of 2+ per cent ad. valorem, in the case of imports at the port of entry; and in the case of exports, he may purchase a certificate enabling him to pass his goods, duly-free, to the port of shipment. By a separate clause, the Chinese government agreed to pay two million taels (about £650,000), as indemnity for losses sustained by British subjects at Canton, and a like sum towards the expenses of the war.
The repulse on the Peiho (June,1859), by a Tartar force concealed in the Taku forts, of the expedition forming the escort of the British and French ambassadors, who were on their way to Pekin, to ratify with the emperor of China the treaty of Tientsin, entailed another costly demonstration in the Chinese waters. The Taku forts were captured by the allied English and French forces, Aug. 21, 1860, and Pekin itself in Dec., 1860. The treaty of Tien-tsin was ratified, two additional articles being inserted, one of which legalized coolie emigration. Since 1861, a gradual but beneficial change has come over the spirit of the Chinese government. Prince Kung proved a vigorous and successful regent. The army has been reorganized, and is now subjected to European drill (see par. army); a respect for the observance of treaties has sprung up; a national flag has been adopted, and a desire shown on the part of the Chinese to make themselves acquainted with international law. In 1866, arrangements were begun for telegraphic communication between Pekin and the rest of the world ; and emigration to all other countries was allowed. Shanghai has telegraphic communication with Europe, and some local lines; but the first Chinese railway opened there in 1876, has unluckily been closed again. Chinese are now found on almost every shore of the Pacific, where their industry, skill, and sobriety secure them abundant employment. They are especially numerous in the Pacific states of the American Union, where harsh measures, including a heavy tax on arriving, have recently been adopted. in order to repress Chinese immigration. Between 1855 and 1878, upwards of 200,000 Chinese had, for a longer or shorter time, established themselves in the United States.