The manners and customs of the Chinese can only here be glanced at. The worship of ancestors is a remarkable and prominent feature in their social life, and is dictated by that principle of filial piety which forms the basis of Chinese society. The rich have in their houses a chamber—a kind of domestic sanctuary—dedicated to their forefathers. Tablets, representing the deceased persons, and inscribed with their names, are here carefully preserved; and at stated seasons, prostrations and ceremonies are performed before them according to the book of rites. All Chinese worship from time to time at the tombs of their parents. In everything that relates to death and sepulture, the cus toms of the Chinese are no less singular. They meet their last enemy with apparent unconcern; but whilst their future state troubles them little, they regard the quality of their coffins as of vital importance, and frequently provide them during their lifetime; indeed, a coffin is reckoned a most acceptable present, and is frequently given by chil dren to their parents. "To be happy on earth," say the Chinese, "one must be born in Su-ebow, live in Canton, and die in Lianehau "—Su-chow being celebrated for the beauty of its women, Canton for its luxury, and Liauchau for furnishing the best wood for coffins. Yet death is never alluded to in direct terms, but indicated rather by peri phrases, such as—the person "exists no more," "he has saluted the age," "ascended to the sky," etc. Banquets are offered to the dead, and pathetic speeches addressed to them. In China, marriage is universal, and within the reach- of all; but there is a strict separation of the sexes, and betrothal is undertaken by the parents or by professional match-makers. Minute ceremonial observances regulate every step, and frequently the bride and bridegroom see each other on the wedding-day for the first time. Women hold a very inferior position, and are little better than slaves. Polygamy is not recog nized by law, but secondary wives are common, especially-when the first proves barren. Infanticide, though regarded as a crime, is undoubtedly practiced to some extent, as is proved by edicts issued against it; and parents possess almost unlimited authority over their children. The intercourse of the Chinese with-each other, especially of the upper classes, is regulated by a tedious and elaborate etiquette; indeed, they are the slaves of custom, and everything is done by precedent. Many curious instances of Chinese polite ness might be cited. The well-bred host presses many things on a visitor, which the latter must never dream of accepting. "A Chinaman, says Mr. Oliphant, has won derful command of feature; he generally looks most pleased when he has least reason to be so, and maintains an expression of imperturbable politeness and amiability, when lie is secretly regretting devoutly that he cannot bastinade you to death." The Le-king, or book of rites, regulates Chinese manners, and is one cause of their uncliangeableness; for here they are stereotyped, and handed down from age to age. The ceremonial usages of China have been estimated at 3,000; and one of the tribunals at Pekin—the board of rites—is charged with their interpretation. Chinese cookery, in the use of made dishes, more nearly resembles the French than the English. Birds' nests soup, sharks' fins, deer-sinews, and ducks' tongues, are amongst its delicacies. The wine, or weak spirit (tsew), more correctly speaking, used by the Chinese is made from rice; and from this, again, they distill a stronger spirit, the "samshoo" of Canton. The former is drunk warm in minute cups at their meals; tea never appears during a repast, though it may be taken before or after. The Chinese have numerous festivals; and .perhaps the most remarkable of these is that celebrated at the commencement of the new year, when unbounded festivity prevails. Preparatory to this, debts are settled, and the devout repair to the temples to gain the favor of the gods. The first day of the year may, in one sense, be reckoned the birthday of the whole people, for their ages are dated from it. Visiting is, at the same time, carried on to a great extent, whilest parents and teach ers receive the prostrations and salutations of their children or pupils. The festival of the dragon-boats is held on the fifth day of the fifth month; and at the first full moon of the year, the feast of lanterns. In the manufacture of these the Chinese excel; and on the night of the festival, lanterns illuminate each door, wonderful in their variety of form and material.
In the matter of dress, the Chinaman exhibits his usual practical sense, and varies the material according to the season, from cotton-wadded or fur-lined coats to the light est silk, gauze, dr grass-cloth. On the approach of cold weather, he lights no fire in his dwelling, but puts on additional clothing until the desired temperature is attained. A tunic or kind of loose jacket fitting close round the neck, and a wide short trouser, are his principal garments. Shoes are made of silk or cotton, with thick felt soles. White is the color of mourning. The Tartar tonsure and braided queue became gen eral with the ?itantchu conquest of the country, since which 180,000,000 of men have the hair removed from their heads at short intervals; and as no Chinaman is his own barber, a great number of this calling find employment. The Chinaman is very sparing in his ablutions, and appears to be afflicted with a strange hydrophobia; for cold water, either as a beverage or for washing his person, he holds in abomination. Long nails are fashionable. The custom of the women differs but little from that of the men, and their shoes are the most remarkable part of their toilet. A lady's shoe measures about 3 in. from the heel to the toe. The feet of the Tartar women are left as nature made
them; but amongst the Chinese, all young girls of the better classses are crippled by a tyrant custom. In early infancy the feet are tightly bound, the four small toes being tucked under the sole, of which, after a time, they become a part, and the heel is brought forward. The process is at length complete; stumps have been substituted for the ordinary pedal extremities, and the Chinese lady totters on her goat's feet.; The principal manufactures of the Chinese are silk, cotton, linen, and pottery, for which latter they are especially celebrated. The finest porcelain is made in the province of Keang-se. The Chinese invented printing in the beginning of the 10th c. and in 932 A.D. a printed imperial edition of the sacred books was published, The skill of the Chinese in handicraft is astonishing. Their rich silks and satins, light gauzes, beauti ful embroidery, elaborate engraving on wood and stone, delicate filigree-work in gold and silver, carvings on ivory, fine lacquered ware, antique vessels in bronze, and their brilliant coloring on the famous pith paper, command our admiration.
Of the grand modern discoveries in the physical sciences the Chinese are profoundly ignorant, and the study of nature is altogether neglected. The Chinaman objects to be wiser than his forefathers, but spends ante-time rn studying his classical literature and the sages of antiquity; and here is doubtless one great cause of the homogeneity of the race, and the stereotyped nature of the Chinese mind.
Of animal physiology and medicine the Chinese have very crude notions, as is shown by their scheme of the human body, in which the heart is placed in the center, with the other organs ranged round it, and their unphilosophical theory of the pulse, which plainly demonstrates that they are ignorant of the true circulation of the blood, and the vascular system in man; hence their practice of medicine must be empirical. Chinese physicians believe that man is composed of five elements; that so long as each maintains its due proportion, health is preserved; but should one gain the ascendency, illness fol lows, and the equilibrium must be restored by proper remedies. Acupuncture is prac ticed. The Chinese have had the opportunity of practically testing the superiority of western medical science, by the establishment of English and American hospitals, the introduction of vaccination, and by the publication of popular treatises on physiology and practical surgery, etc., by Dr. Hobson, late of Canton. It is worthy of remark, that these books were eagerly sought after, and excited a deep interest among their literati; indeed, the physiology has been twice republished by persons holding high official situations at Canton, and in a preface to the Chinese edition, the publisher observes: " Our science, indeed, cannot compete with that of the philanthropic author." the centralized autocratic government of China, the emperor is absolute in the empire, the governor in the province, the magistrate in the district. The emperor claims no hereditary divine right, and is not always the eldest son of the pre ceding monarch; the ablest sou is nominated, but his right to the throne as the or Tien-tze, "son of heaven," the "divinely appointed," can only be estab fished by good government, in accordance with the principles laid down in the national sacred books. If, on the contrary, he violates these principles, the people firmly believe that heaven signifies, by unmistakable signs, that their ruler is not its chosen represent ative. "The rivers rise from their beds, the ground sullenly refuses its fruits, the plains tremble, the hills reel, and the typhoon rages over seas and coasts, all alike utter ing a ' Numbered, numbered, weighed and parted,' that requires no interpretation, but is read in anxiety by the people, in dismay and terror by the prince," who seeks by repentance, and a return to the true principles of the government, to avert his doom. The emperor is absolute as legislator and administrator; but he must legislate in accord ance with the general principles acknowledged in the country. He also constitutes, in his own person, the highest criminal court. The Chinese possess a carefully digested code of laws, which is added to and modified from time to time by imperial edicts. Their penal code commenced 2,000 years ago, and copies of it are sold at so cheap a rate as to be within reach of people of the humblest means. Death, which the Chinaman prefers to long confinement, is the penalty for a large number of offenses, and in ordi nary years about 10,000 criminals are executed. Several modes of torture are legal. The emperor is assisted in governing by two councils-1. The inner or pricy council, composed of six high officials, three of whom are Chinese and three Mantchus. The four senior ministers exercise functions corresponding to those of an English prime minister. 2. 7'he general or strategical conned, which closely resembles our cabinet; being composed of the most influential officers in the capita), who exercise high legisla tive and executive duties. Under these arc six yamuns or colleges of government, each charged with a distinct department of government. Over all is the court of general • inspection, or the censorate, as it is called by foreigners. The mandarins composing this number from 40 to 50; they are "the eyes and ears of the emperor;" for it is their prov ince to see that all officers of the ffovernment, provincial or metropolitan, arc faithful in the discharge of their respective duties; and they alone have the right to make represen tations or complaints to the emperor.