May 1, 1707, during the reign of queen Anne, the union of England and was formally accomplished. (For the previous history, see ENGLAND and SCOTLAND.) In the latter of these countries, the terms at first excited the utmast dis satisfaction, and even indignation; but the progress of time has shown it to be one of the greatest blessings that either nation could have experienced. The last years of queen Anne's reign were marked by the triumph of the tory party, headed by Harley and St. John (Oxford and Bolingbroke), who kept up a constant intrigue with the pretender, for the purpose of procnrmng his restoration. This treachery was defeated by the sudden death of her majesty in 1713. According to the act of settlement, she was succeeded by the elector of Hanover, who took the title of George I. The whigs then regained their ascendency, and, under the guidance of Walpole (q.v), now rising to eminence. at once proceeded to impeach the more important of the tory leaders. Other severities drove the mere impatient of that party to attempt bringing in the pretender by force of arms. In 1715 the earl of Mar in Scotland, and the earl of Derwentwater in England, raised the standard of rebellion; both efforts, however, proved abortive, and were speedily crushed. Five years later, occurred the frightful catastrophe known as the south sea bubble, when the nation was saved from anarchy mainly by the exertions of Walpole. The latter now became premier and chancellor of the exchequer, and under him the commerce and manufactures of England continued steadily to advance, though little improvement was as yet perceptible either in Scotland or Ireland. George I. 'died in 1727, and was succeded by his son George II. An attempt was again made by the tories to oust the •higs from power, but was frustrated by Walpole. who still continued time prime mover of public affairs. In 1739 after a peace of extraordinary duration, he was forced by popular clamor into a war with Spain, on account of sonic efforts made by that country to cheek an illicit trade carried on by British merchants in its American colonies. This war was feebly carried on, and ingloriously terminated; but the atten tion of England was speedily drawn towards the Austrian war of succession in which it was involved through the anxiety of the king for his Hanoverian possessions, and the 'strong antipathy of time people to the French. Walpole, disapproving of the war, was driven from office in 1743. George II. appeared on the field of battle himself, and at Dettingen proved himself a man of courage and spirit. But time success of the French at Fontenoy in 1745 paralyzed the efforts of England during the rest of the campaign; and in 1748, after nine years' fighting, a peace was concluded at Aix-la-Chapelle. by which it was agreed that both nations should mutually restore their conquests, and go back to exactly the same condition as they were in before the warl Meanwhile, a second attempt had been made (1745-46) by prince Charles plward Stuart to win back the throne of his ancestors. This attempt, known as the second rebellion, was crushed at Culloden (April 16, 1746), and shortly after, a variety of important measures were passed by the iinperial parliament relating to Scotland generally, and to the Highlands in particular, which had the effect, on the whole, both of conciliating the inhabitants, and of increasing their civilization. Now after a long period of indolende and poverty, Scotland began to make advances tovards that equality with England, in respect of comfort and prosperity, which it has since attained.
In 1756 broke out the "seven years' war." in which Britain took the side of erick the Great against France, Austria, Russia, and Poland. It achieved no triumphs in Europe.; on the contrary, it suffered a signer disgrace in the surrender of the duke of Cumberland, with 40,000 men. in Hanover; but in India, Clive deprived the French of most of their possessions, while Wolfe, in the new world, conquered their colony of Canada. In the midst of this war, George 11. died (1760), and was succeeded by his grandson, George III., whose reign proved to be the longest,and one of the most eventful in the annals of British history. At this time the principal secretary of state was William Pitt, afterwards the great earl of Chatham; but the favor which George III. showed to the earl of Bute, a feeble and narrow-minded tory nobleman, rendered it necessary for the former to retire from office. Spain now joined France against Britain, as Pitt had foreseen and foretold; but fortune showered her brightest smiles upon the arms of the latter, and at the peace in 1763 she was allowed to retain many of the most valuable colonial possessions of both her antagonists. These wars, however, largely increased the national debt.
HI. now showed himself anxious to destroy the influence of the great whig families who had brought in the dynasty to which he belonged. The nation took the alarm, and for some time was strongly disaffected towards its sovereign, who was believed to be wholly under the influence of his Scotch premier. the earl of Bute. Pop ular indignation at last forced the latter to resign in 1763. Ills successor, Grenville, inaugurated his advancement to office by the prosecution for libel of Wilkes. the member for Aylesbury, who had made himself conspicuous by his attacks both on Bute and his royal master. The proceedings in this case lasted some years, and were attended with tumults of a serious nature, and a vehemence if not rancor of public feeling that indi cated the magnitude of the discontent which prevailed. During the administration of Grenville, too, the first attempt was made to tax the American colonies by the passing of the stamp act in 1765. Against this the colonies protested, and the succeeding whig ministry of Rockingham repealed it. This ministsy, however. was of short duration,
and was replaced by one formed by Pitt, now created earl of Chatham. The necessity for an increase of the finances led to another attempt at American taxation, and an act for imposing duties on the imports of tea, glass, and colors was passed. This measure excited the most determined opposition among the colonists; and finally, in 1774, war broke out between them and the mother-country, which lasted eight years, and in which the former were supported by France, Spain, and Holland. It resulted in the acknowl edgment of their independence, and in the formation of the republic of the United States (1783), During almost the whole of this unhappy contest, the ministry of lord North directed the policy of the country; and it was only the success of a vote for the conclusion of the war that forced them to resign early in 1782. It was followed by the second Rockingham ministry, and that soon after by the Shelburne ministry, only remarkable for the appearance in it ofdhe younger Pitt. The lukewarm whiggism of lord Shelburne gave offense to Fox and other more advanced political thinkers; the result was a coalition of the Foxites with the followers of lord North. This coalition, factious and unprincipled in the last degree, triumphed, and under the name of the coalition ministry, held the seals of office during the year 1783. Fox's India bill, the purpose of which was virtually to transfer the government and patronage of India frOm the East India company to the house of commons, was the cause of its ruin. This bill was considered by the king to aim at fixing the ministry in power beyond the control of both himself and the people, and having induced the house of lords to reject it, he com pelled the ministry to resign. Pitt was then appointed prime minister and chancellor of the exchequer. See PITT. In 1786 commenced the trial of Warren Hastings, who was impeached by the whig leaders. Fox. Burke, and Sheridan, but •.vas ultimately acquitted. Meanwhile, the progress both of England and Scotland was unquestionable; manufac tures increased, agriculture improved, and—especially in Scotland—an interest in the discussion of political and other questions of importance spread through the community, as may be seen very clearly in the poetry of Robert Burns. The French revolution (1789) at first strengthened thiS interest, but the excesses of the reign of terror produced a decided reaction; and for many years all classes, at least all the so-called "respectable classes," were fanatically averse to the slightest innovation. In 1793 the ministry of Pitt, without any real cause, declared war against the French republic, in spite of the opposition of Fox and Sheridan. This contest lasted till the peace of Amiens in 1801, and was, on the whole, very disastrous to Great Britian. except at sea, where the vic tories of Howe of Brest, Jervis off cape St. Vincent, Duncan off Camperdown, and Nelson in Aboukir bay, served to sustain the spirit of the nation. Other features of the time were the threatenalinvasion ortritain by the French, which called forth vqhmteer corps in every part of the island; the Irish rebellion, which, though assisted by a French force, proved a failure; and the trial and condemnation at Edinburgh of the popular reformers, Mure, Palmer, etc. Pitt, who had left office just before the peace of Amiens, was succeeded by Addington, who was compelled to renew the war with Bonaparte in 1803, on account of the way in which the latter evaded fulfilling the conditions of that peace. Again, Bonaparte threatened to invade the country, and collected an immense flotilla at Boulogne, professedly for that purpose, in 1803, but was completely kept in check by Nelson. The battle of Trafalgar in 1805, nearly annihilated the navy of France and Spain. But on land, the arms of France were victorious; and the battle of Auster litz (1805) broke up most effectually that coalition of continental powers against France which Great Britain had fostered and formed. The shock of this disaster gave a death blow to Pitt, who expired in the beginning of 1806, and was followed to the grave in the autumn of the same year by his rivaCFox. The overthrow of Prussia at Jena and Auerstadt, and. of Russia at placed Great Britain in a most pefflons predica ment. All the nations of Europe were compelled by Bonaparte 16 exclude British mer-• chandise from their ports, and the island of Great Britain itself was declared in a state of blockade. Secure, however, in the protection of her invincible navy, she bore np bravely against her terrible isolation, increased her intercourse with her own vast colo nies, ruinod the commerce of her enemies, and never ceased her efforts to undermine the influence of her great enemy on the continent. The first people that showed a ten dency to revolt against the arrogant tyranny of Bonaparte were the Spaniards. Great Britain at once offered to assist them with arms and money, and in 1808 a force was landed in Portugal, under the command of sir Arthur Wellesley, afterwards duke of Wellington. The war which ensued (known as the "peninsular war") lasted till 1814, and ended in the French being driven back in disorder into their own country at Toulouse. Meanwhile, ruin had overtaken the French army in Russia; Austria. Prussia, and Russia had combined with Great Britain against Bonaparte; and in 1814 the allies entered Paris, and the French emperor was forced to abdicate, and retire to'Elba. his return in 1815 once more threw Europe into disorder and agitation; but his power was finally shattered at Waterloo by Wellington and Blucher, and pence restored to Europe. The contest had cost Britain (which hard to subsidize most of her allies) an enormous expense. See DEBT, NATIONAL.