LIGIOUS.
The papacy, engaged in a struggle with the monarchs, felt the need of temporal power and strove for it. Innocent III had monarchs as his vassals, and wielded a temporal authority greater than that of any previous Pope. After the popes had triumphed over the Hohen stanfens they seemed to have achieved success. Their struggle with the French king, at the be 'ng of the 14th century, however, led to t and to the *Babylonian captivity)) at Avignon. Then ensued the schism and the con ciliar period when many felt that the general councils and not the popes should be supreme. Finally the papacy emerged triumphant, but with a changed ideal, laying less stress upon temporal power (q.v.), and more upon control over the conscience of the individual.
Chivalry. Decadence of the Knights.— In the 12th century, the clergy and the knights formed the aristocracy. The latter, too, had their period of great splendor. The ideals of chivalry, which became prominent in the 12th century, were inculcated by the Church, and the knights were often likened to the clergy as a class specially set apart by their religiOus vows. These ideals were also inculcated by the new literature, which glorified not only bravery and loyalty, but also generosity and luxury. The latter led to the rum of many of the knights. Their income, arising from feudal dues, was rel atively fixed. As their tastes expanded and they expended more upon luxuries, they fell into debt. The rate of interest was ruinous and they were unable to pay. Consequently many were compelled to alienate their fiefs; the mon archs and other lords of large fiefs absorbed the lesser fiefs., and there was a tendency for the knights to become retainers of the more wealthy. Their consequence as a class declined in comparison with the growing importance of the merchants. The development of strong infantry forces finally deprived them of their pre-eminence in military matters. See CHIVALRY.
Rise of the Nations.— The contact with other peoples led to the rise of a national con sciousness. In the earlier days, when each feudal castle or village was practically isolated and often at strife with its neighbors, there had been little feeling of common interests. Asso
ciation with foreigners brought a sense of national feeling in opposition to the foreigners. This is very marked in the armies of the second and third crusades. This movement was coin cident with, and one cause of, the growth of the strong monarchies. The merchant class was also an important element in the development of the king's powers. Commerce was heavily burdened with feudal tolls and exposed to dep redations by the knights. The merchants sought privileges and protection from the kings. In return they furnished them money, which aided them in extending their power at the ex pense of that of their nobles. The kings came to depend' largely upon the cities for support in all struggles with the nobles. By their wealth the citizens were able to rival the nobles in luxury and ostentation. The sons of the mer chants frequented the universities and developed into officials of the kings. More and more the kings came to depend upon the third estate and to withdraw power from the nobles.
The French Monarchy.— The development of the monarchical power took different forms in the several countries, but took place about the same time in the leading nations. In France, the Capetian kings (see Cam) had at first lit tle power. They had only a small territory directly under their control, and consequently only a small income. But by fortunate mar riages and by confiscations they enlarged their feudal domains. Several of the kings had long reigns and the evils of a minority or a change of dynasty were avoided. Gradually all the fiefs were brought under the control of the king, and feudal usages were made the basis for the assertion of a really monarchical power. Under Saint Louis (1226-70) and his successors France was centralized and the kings became supreme. The prosperity of France was checked for a time by the Hundred Years' War (1328-1461). This was due in part to a failure of male heirs in the direct line, which enabled the English kings to make a claim to the throne on the ground that they were the most direct heirs. But France finally emerged triumphant and England lost all her territory in France. The kings, supported by the third es tate, became practically absolute.