LABOR ORGANIZATIONS, Foreign. Modern trade unionism in Europe has its origin in the industrial revolution, which began in England during the latter part of the 18th cen tury and spread during the next century over the greater part of the Continent. The de velopment of the factory system, the extension of markets and the increase in competition be tween employers led to the breakdown of the medieval guild system and resulted in an open breach between employers and employees. The latter soon began to organize for protection and improvement of conditions. As a result we have the modern trade union, which after many difficulties, partly with the aid of strikes and partly through politics, has been able to assert itself, and now •plays an important part in all of the principal manufacturing countries of Europe.
Great In Great Britain modern trade unions began to appear during the 18th century, earlier than in any other country in the world. Such unions had to disguise them selves as friendly societies, since combitiations in restraint of trade were contrary to the com mon law and thus illegal. The persecution of trade unions increased during the Napoleonic Wars, but in 1824 all Combination Laws pre viously passed were repealed and freedom of association granted. In 1825, however, 'part of the laws against combinations were re-enacted and persecutions of unions renewed.
From 1825 to 1850 English trade unionism was revolutionary and political in character. The Win! of prices and the lack of prosperity gave rise in 1832 to the Grand National Con solidated Trade Union, established by Robert Owen. This union included many workmen, skilled as well as unskilled, and was co-opera tive and revolutionary. This movement was followed by the Chartist movement, which aimed at the attainment of economic equality through political equality or universal suffrage. It went to pieces in the latter forties with the return of prosperity and its place was taken by the modern trade union of England.
The English labor unions established after 1850 differed from their predecessors in that they took in only skilled labor and placed little confidence in political action. They believed in and tried to establish collective bargaining, lim itation of apprenticeship and big reserve funds for strikes. In 1867 labor was given the right
of suffrage and in 1875 the Conspiracy Laws were greatly limited. Between 1858 and 1867 many federations of branches in all principal towns formed under the name of trade coun cils. The trades councils united into a trade union council in 1868.
Beginning with 1880 English unionism again turned its eyes toward politics. Radical leaders like Mann and Burns became dissatisfied with the conservatism of the unions and turned to organize the unskilled workmen, a move which culminated in the famous dockers' strike of 1889. In 1883 they launched the Independent Labor party upon a socialistic platform, with James Keir Hardie as the most prominent leader. For a time the trade unions continued aloof until they were forced into the new move ment by the Taff Vale decision in 1901 which threatened their very existence. Already in 1899 the Trades Union Congress, which since the sixties had kept watch over Pie parliamen tary interests of the trade union, endorsed in dependent political action and in 1900 the *Labour Representation Committee* was organ ized, containing representatives from the trade unions and the several Socialist organizations, including the Independent Labor party. The name was later changed to *Labor Party.' In 1906 the new party scored its first great success, electing 29 members of Parliament and 11 others unaffiliated with the party but repre senting the miners. In the same year Parlia ment passed the Trade Union and Trade Dis pute Act, which did away with the effects of the Taff Vale decision. The Labor party con tinued to influence British legislation through out the succeeding years, aligning itself on the side of the Liberal government. The Great War caused British labor to give up many of its cherished privileges in order to hasten war production. In 1917 the Labor party modified its constitution to take in individuals, brain workers and unorganized individuals, and worked out a comprehensive reconstruction program. Since 1915 the Labor party was represented in the Cabinet.