In 1915 the trade unions affiliated with the Trades Union Congress numbered 190 with a membership of 2,667,357. The General Federa tion of Trade Unions, founded in 1899, is not a legislative but an economic organization, akin to the American Federation of Labor. It has a membership of about 800,000.' The total number of trade unions, including those un affiliated with any general organization at the end of 1915, was 1,123 with a total membership of 3,960,000.
In Germany the medieval guild system came to an end about 1880 and its place was taken by modern guilds, made up mainly of employees and encouraged by the government. Modern trade unions were started in 1865 and at present are of three kinds, each being in opposition to the others: the *free* or Social Democratic unions, the Hirsch Duncker or Liberal unions, and the Christian unions. Each of these groups has its separate federal organization.
The Social Democratic unions started in 1865 and grew very rapidly in membership till now they make up the largest and most power ful organization in the German labor movement. Their rapid growth started in 1868, when the workingmen succeeded in getting freedom of association. From 1878 to 1890 the unions were persecuted together with the Socialists and many unions were dissolved. The majority of them, however, were able to survive and pros per. All the Socialist unions are closely united in the General Commission, which is allied with the Social Democratic party. The Socialist unions are characterized by a centralized and efficient organization. In 1914 they numbered 2,548,763 members, including 223,676 women, and divided into 47 unions. They are very strong among the metal and mineral workers, in the building trades, and among the transport and factory workers. During the war the Socialist unions have lost more than 60 per cent of their membership. The Hirsch-Duncker or Liberal unions were started in 1868 in order to unite the workmen who supported the Radical Parlia mentary party. They have since lost their political interests and are now mainly economic in character. They recognize the equal rights and duties of capital and labor and are non socialistic. Their members are mostly skilled workmen, and in 1912 they numbered 109,225,, Socialists being barred from membership. The Christian or Catholic unions were started in 1894 as a result of the anti-religious bias of the Socialist unions. They are most numerous in the Catholic industrial and mining districts of Westphalia and the Rhine Valley. They
repudiate Socialism and class conflict and sup port only the Centre, or Catholic Party. arc less aggressive than the other unions. In 1912 they had a membership of 344,687, which is gradually decreasing.
Besides these three principal classes of unions there are several minor groups. There are some independent unions, yellow unions pro moted and subsidized by employers, and some Polish unions.
Modern trade unionism in France was greatly retarded by the Law of 1791, which prohibited labor combinations. The old guild system was thereby overthrown and no organ izations were allowed to take its place. Na poleon I tried to form compulsory organiza-' tions of employers and employees, but failed. Before 1884, however, many unions sprang up secretly all over France. Most of these unions were friendly societies or under such a disguise. The revolutionary activities during the middle part of the century gave great momentum to the labor movement and workingmen began to demand strongly the right of combination. In 1868 trade unions began to be tolerated, though they were still illegal. During the seventies numerous unions were formed and several labor congresses held in Paris. All during this time unionism was closely con nected with the various factions of the Social istic party.
In 1884 the Syndicat law was passed, legal izing trade unions and strikes. Since then French trade unionism developed rapidly. In 1886 a National Federation of Syndicates or Unions was formed. In 1887 the first bourse du travail, or labor exchange, formed by workers opposed to the Federation, was opened in Paris. The latter takes in workers of all trades. It spread all over France and in 1892 a National Association of Labor Exchanges was formed. In 1902 the latter united with the General Confederation of Labor, which in 1895 took the place of the National Federation. The General Confederation is revolutionary in spirit and believes in direct action, such as general strikes, boycotts and sabotage rather than in political action. It consists of national federations of trades and industries, national unions, single local unions and labor exchanges, It is characterized by a lack of centralized au thority, discipline and stability. Owing to its revolutionary spirit France has had many strikes. In 1912 the Confederation had a mem bership of 600,000 workingmen.