All means of return to Europe for the French were thus cut off, and to add to their misfortunes the sultan declared war against them, and a short time after serious disturb ances broke out in Cairo, which were only suppressed by horrible massacres. Napoleon resolved to meet the Turkish forces assembling in Syria. In February 1799 he crossed the desert with about 13,000 men; took El-Arish and Gaza, and stormed Jaffa, where a great number of Turkish prisoners were deliberately massacred. On the 17th he reached Acre, which was defended by a Turkish garrison under Djezzar Pasha, assisted by Sir Sydney Smith and a small body of English sailors and marines. After 60 days he gave up the siege and returned to Egypt, leaving the whole coun try on fire behind him. He re-entered Cairo 14 June, having lost 4,000 men in the Syrian ex pedition. About the middle of July the sultan landed a force of 18,000 at Abukir, which Na poleon attacked and almost annihilated on the 25th. His position was far from agreeable, however; he had signally failed in the great objects of his expedition, and besides news had reached him of disaster to the French arms in Italy and of confusion in Paris. On 22 August he embarked in a frigate and 9 October landed at Frejus, having narrowly escaped capture several times by the British Mediterranean cruisers. He arrived in Paris in time to take advantage of the political intrigues then rife. The credit of the government was wholly gone and its authority over its generals impaired. A revolution in the government 18 June had not made new directors more competent than their predecessors. Another change became neces sary. Napoleon secured the co-operation of Moreau and the other generals then in the capital, and abolished the Directory on the 18th and 19th Brumaire (9-10 November). A new constitution was then drawn up, chiefly by the Abbe Sieyes, under which Napoleon was made first consul. As, however, he had the power of appointing to all public offices, of proposing all public measures in peace and in war, and the entire command of all administrative affairs, both civil and military, he was virtually ruler of France.
From this time Napeoleon's policy developed itself more distinctly; its objects were to estab lish order at home and to humiliate the enemies of the nation; but personal aggrandizement was an end scarcely less conspicuous. With sagac ity, activity and boldness he undertook to form civil affairs. He recruited the national treasury by various expedients, repealed the more violent laws passed during the Revolu tion, such as punishment for matters of opinion, reopened the churches and suppressed the Ven dean insurrection by a series of decided but conciliatory measures. But he was well aware that his genius was essentially military, and that his most striking triumphs were those won on the battlefield. He offered Austria, England and Turkey, in theatrical phrases, terms of peace, which were rejected. He resolved to strike a blow first at Austria by a renewal of the glories of his former Italian campaign. An army of 36,000 men was concentrated with un paralleled rapidity and secrecy on the shores of the Lake of Geneva. On 13 May 1800 he began his daring march across the Great Saint Bernard, and almost before the Austrian gen eral Melas was aware, had entered Milan (2 June). After several unimportant skirmishes he encountered the Austrians at Marengo (14 June), where he achieved another brilliant vic tory, which put all the Piedmontese fortresses, for the second time, in possession of the French.
Having established provisional government at Milan, Turin and Genoa, he returned to Paris 3 July. As his general, Moreau, had de feated the Archduke John in the decisive battle of Hohenlinden (3 December), Austria was re duced to sue for peace, and on 9 Feb. 1801 signed the Treaty of Luneville, which was mainly based on that of Campo Formio. Treaties were subsequently concluded with Spain, Naples, the Pope, Bavaria, Portugal, Russia, Turkey, and finally 27 March 1802, the Peace of Amiens. Thus it seemed as if a uni
versal cessation of hostilities were about to mark the history of Europe, and allow Napo leon the opportunity to crush the insurrection of the blacks in San Domingo. An army was sent out under Leclerc, some 20,000 of which were swept away by disease or the sword; the blacks were provoked by brutal cruelties to still more fearful massacres, in which about 60,000 whites perished. Toussaint l'Ouverture, an able and courageous negro who had made him self the leader of his unfortunate countrymen, was seized during a truce and carried to France, where he died in prison.
But the great occupation of Napoleon was the improvement of the interior affairs of the nation. A general amnesty allowed all the Emigres to return home; the Legion of Honor, a new order of knighthood, was established. Considerable attention was paid to such depart ments of education as tended to promote effi ciency in the public service. Mathematics and physical science were encouraged at the ex pense of philosophy, ethics and social and po litical science. All prefects of departments and all mayors of cities were appointed by Napo leon, so that not a vestige of provincial or municipal freedom remained. On 2 Aug. 1802, Napoleon was proclaimed by a decree of the Senate consul for life, a step confirmed by a plebiscite of 3,000,000 votes. A senator con sultum issued some days after, reconstructing the electoral bodies and reducing the tribunate to 50 members, showed, however, that Napoleon was not yet satisfied with the authority he was clothed with, and many persons saw in the movement a step toward still more absolute power. It is to this period that the greatest of his services to France belongs. He assembled the first lawyers in the nation, under the presi dency of Cambaceres, to draw up a code of civil laws. See CODE, Code Napolion.
Meanwhile the state of Europe was begin ning to look serious. Disturbances in Switzer land in the early part of 1802 induced Napoleon to resort to an armed mediation in its affairs; in August of the same year Elba was incorpo rated with France, Piedmont 11 September and Parma in October. England regarded these proceedings an an infringement of the Treaty of Amiens, and as remonstrances were inef fectual, there was in a short time a resumption of hostilities. On 18 May 1803, England de dared war against France, having laid an em bargo on all French ships in British ports. France retaliated by a decree that all English men found on her territory should be detained as prisoners of war; and General Mortier was sent to occupy Hanover, as belonging to Great Britain. While these events were taking place a conspiracy for the overthrow of the first con sul and the re-establishment of the Bourbons was discovered and thwarted. Napoleon pre tended to see an accomplice of the conspirators in the Duc d'Enghien, and caused him to be arrested in neutral territory, brought to Vin cennes and, after a mock trial, shot. Napoleon now seems to have thought it necessary that he should assume the imperial dignity. An appeal was made to the nation, and upward of 3,000, 000 votes were given in favor of conferring on him the title and prerogatives of emperor, while less than 3,000 were against it. On 18 May 1804 Napoleon assumed the imperial title; and in order that due solemnity should not be want ing, he requested Pius VII to perform the cere mony of his coronation. The Pope assented and went to Paris 2 December. He was only allowed to perform part of the ceremony, how ever, as Napoleon snatched the crown from the pontiff's hands and placed it on his own head, perfor ing a like office for his consort,Josephine. n 26 May 1805 he was also crowned kilt Italy in the cathedral of Milan; and Eugene Beauharnais, his stepson, was appointed viceroy. He created a nobility with sounding titles; surrounded himself by a brilliant court; established all the etiquette of royalty; and introduced many practices marked by ostentation and parade.