The years 1810-11 were the period of Napo leon's greatest power. On the north he had annexed Holland, Friesland, Oldenburg, Bre men and all the coast-line as far as Hamburg, and on the south Rome and the southern papal provinces. His empire thus extended from the frontiers of Denmark to those of Naples, with Paris, Rome and Amsterdam as its first, second and third capitals, and it was divided into 130 provinces, having a total population of 42, 000,000. He may also be said to have exer cised almost unlimited control in Spain, the Italian kingdoms, Switzerland and the Con federation of the Rhine (q.v.). But now the tide began to turn. Russia found it impossible to carry out the Continental blockade without permanent injury to her great landowners; Sweden, which had accepted Bernadotte, one of Napoleon's generals, as king, was in a like predicament. The Berlin decree was frequently evaded, which involved Russia particularly in fresh complications, and in view of the war now inevitable that nation formed an alliance with Sweden. In May 1812 Napoleon de clared war against Russia, and determined in spite of the dissuasion of his most prudent gen erals to invade the country. On 16 May Napo leon was in Dresden making arrangements for the great Russian campaign. The army he organized for it has been estimated at from 640,000 to 680,000 men, inclusive of Prussian, Austrian, German, Polish and Swiss auxiliaries. An army of 300,000 Russians, under Barclay de Tolly and Bagration, assembled on the banks of the Niemen to oppose him. On 24 June he crossed that river at Kovno, and the Russians retired step by step before him, deliberately wasting the country, carrying off all supplies and avoiding as far as possible general engage ments. The French, however, pushed rapidly forward, overtook and routed the rear guard of Barclay's army at Ostrovno, 25 July, and on the 28th occupied Vitebsk. On 16 August the Rus sians made a stand at Smolensk against an ad vanced division of the French army, and when the latter entered the city on the 18th it was in ruins.
Both the opposing armies now took up their march toward Moscow. Kutusoff, who had succeeded Barclay, resolved to dispute the pas sage of the Borodino. An obstinate battle en sued 7 September, which cost the French nearly 30,000 men, and their opponents about double that number. On the 15th Napoleon entered Moscow, which had been deserted by its inhabit ants, and which was nearly destroyed by a fire that began on the same night and lasted five days. The baffled French were compelled to seek shelter in the desolate surrounding country. Napoleon vainly attempted to negotiate with Alexander; it was impossible to pursue the Rus sians farther; nothing remained but retreat The French army was now reduced below 120,000 men. For some time the weather was favorable, but the winter set in earlier than usual, and with extraordinary severity.
The line of retreat, too, led through the very districts which had been wasted on the advance. Swarms of mounted Cossacks incessantly har assed the French, now sadly demoralized by cold, famine, disease and fatigue. When the invaders left Smolensk (14 November) they numbered only 40,000 fighting men, and when they had fought their way over the Berezina (27th) there remained but 25,000. At Smorgoni Napoleon quitted the army (5 December), leav ing Murat in command.
Napoleon reached his capital on the 18th and immediately ordered a fresh conscription, still determined on prosecuting the war. But the spirit of Europe was now fairly roused; kings, ecclesiastics and people rose unanimously against the devastator of the Continent, the ter ror of whose name had been destroyed by his disastrous reverse. A sixth coalition, consisting
of Prussia, Russia, England, Sweden and Spain was formed, which early in 1813 sent its forces toward the Elbe. Napoleon had still an army of 350,000 in Germany. For some months he was everywhere victorious. On 2 May he defeated the Allies at Lfitzen, and on the 21st at Bautzen. He reached Breslau 1 June, and on the 4th concluded a six weeks' armistice, which gave the Allies time to reorganize and concen trate their forces and, what was of equal conse quence, to gain over Austria. The campaign was reopened 16 August. The Allies advanced on Dresden, where Napoleon had his head quarters. The battle which ensued (see Dims DEN, BATTLE or) 26-27 August was another dearly bought victory for the French, who were now so outnumbered that their chief was com pelled to fall back on Leipzig. There he was completely hemmed in, and in the great 'Tattle of the Nations" (VOlkerschlacht), as this battle of Leipzig is called, fought 16-19 October, he was completely defeated. The retreat across the Rhine was almost as disastrous as that from Moscow.
On Napoleon's arrival at Paris, 9 November, he succeeded in obtaining from the Senate, in spite of the opposition in the legislative body and the prevalent discontent of the people, a decree for a conscription of 300,000 men. With a fertility of resource and a genius for combina tion almost miraculous, he was able to enter on another campaign, which was this time to be conducted in France. From January to March he confronted the combined hosts of the Allies, inflicting defeat after defeat on them. But numbers were against him; a new and formidable enemy, Wellington, was rapidly advancing on the capital from the south. On 30 March the Allies, after a severe engagement, captured the fortifications of Paris, and on the 31st Alexander and Wellington entered the city amid the acclamations of the people.
On 6 April Napoleon abdicated at Fontaine bleau in favor of his son. He was allowed the sovereignty of the island of Elba, with the title of emperor, and a revenue of 6,000,000 francs. After bidding his army adieu he departed for his new abode, landing from the British frigate Undaunted at Ferrajo 4 May, and Louis XVIII was restored. After a residence of 10 months, most of which was spent in intriguing with the Republicans and his own adherents, he made his escape from the island, and landed at Frejus 1 March 1815, with an escort of 1,000 of his old guard. As soon as his arrival was known Ney and a large part of the army joined him, and he made a triumphal march on Paris, which he reached on the 20th. Louis was driven from his throne without a shot having been fired. The Allies were startled at the astounding event Their armies once more marched toward the French frontier. Napoleon, hastily reorganizing the government on a rather more liberal basis than that of the empire, and having made vain attempts to open negotiations for peace, ad vanced to meet them. On 15 June he crossed the Sambre at the head of 130,000 men to attack the English and Prussians under Wellington and Blucher. On the 16th he defeated Blucher at Ligny, while at Quatre-Bras the English were held in check by Ney. The Prussians made an orderly and leisurely retreat, pursued by a divi sion of the French army under Grouchy.