NATIONAL IDEALS IN THE WAR. In the strain of the great war the national ideals of all the peoples were severely tested. Articles of political faith previously accepted without much question were challenged to de fend themselves in the face of a new criticism and of directly antagonistic ideals. And this warfare of ideals was no mere °battle of the books"; it was fought with machine guns and heavy artillery, with dreadnaughts and sub marines, with battle-planes and poison gases. Once again, as so often in the past, men asked themselves what were the essential principles for which they were ready to make the su preme sacrifice? Thus the war made necessary a thorough reconsideration of national ideals.
President Wilson's war message was read to Congress almost exactly 52 years after the sur render of Lee's army at Appomattox. More than half a century, therefore, had passed since the last conflict which seriously tested the morale of the American people. With few ex ceptions the generation which knew at first hand the real meaning of that struggle—what it involved for the civilian, as well as the soldier — had passed away. Among those in youth and middle life, there was little appreciation of the responsibilities and the sacrifices by which the national fabric had been established and maintained. Furthermore the the great war were such as to demand of the citi zen a quite unusual capacity to see the interest of his country in matters lying beyond his ordinary horizon, an ability to take long views, which has rarely, if ever, been demanded of any democratic community. The rights of the United States had indeed been seriously in vaded, but the enemy seemed very far off. It was not enough to depend upon the primitive instinct which calls men to the defense of their own' home againsta pressing danger. The patriotism of Americans was not stirred, like that of France, by hostile armies upon the actual soil of their country. The appeal was rather, a quite unusual d, free, to perma nent, as distinguished from immediate, interests, to ideal, than purely material, gains.
National Ideals on the Eve of the The foundation of American political thought is the old English tradition of self-government and representative institutions — the right of the people to a share in their own government. With the coming of independence, this ideal was broadened into a more absolute doctrine of popular sovereignty, now interpreted to mean literally that governmental authority of every kind must proceed directly or indirectly from the qualified voters. In the century that fol
lowed, the application of this principle was car ried much farther than was expected or desired by the founders of the republic. Notwith standing important variations in practice, the orthodox American doctrine came to be that of individual manhood suffrage. Restrictions based on color disappeared in theory, if not in practice. A large number of women had al ready secured the suttrage by State action be fore 1914 and the movement for equal suffrage by an amendment to the Federal constitution was gaining headway.
In other respects also 20th century Ameri can democracy is far more radical than that of the fathers. The framers of the early State governments and of the Federal Constitution were much occupied with the dangers, as well as the advantages, of popular government. Their remedy for ultra-radicalism was the sys tem of "checks and balances' and the frequent use of indirect elections, notably in the Federal Constitution. The President was to be chosen by electors exercising a real discretion; sena. tors were elected by the State legislatures, who also had in many Instances the choice of gov ernors and other State officers; even State constitutions were put into effect without rati fication by the voters. Gradually the scope of direct action by the voters was extended. Pres idential electors became merely counters; gov ernors were everywhere chosen by popular vote; and even that safeguard of conservatism, the Senate of the United States, was brought with in the scope of the same principle. From elec• tions the principle was extended to nominations through the system of direct primaries for the choice of party candidates and committees. The voters also sought to exercise a closer control upon the process of legislation by the initiative and referendum ; and there have been numerous protests against judicial action declaring un constitutional measures approved by public opinion. In short, American democracy of the 20th century is far more absolute in as scope,. more impatient of restrictions upon the im mediate execution of the popular will than that of 1776 or 1789.