Flora and On the lowlands of Turkey in Europe, and on the lower slopes of the mountains, are found a variety of ever green trees, box, myrtle, palms, sycamore and also walnut, almond and carob trees. The grape-vine and the citron flourish on the east ern and southern slopes and in the valleys. The roses from which the celebrated eattar of roses" is distilled grow in abundance on the plain of Adrianople. Many of the flowering plants of Asiatic Turkey belong to the same families as those in European Turkey, but they differ in genera. On the lower slopes of nearly all the ranges are found cedar, cypress and oak trees. On the plains are large groves of mulberry and sycamore, and in the valleys are grape-vines, groves of orange, olive, fig, pomegranate and many nut-bearing trees. Some of the interior plains are almost treeless and a large acreage is used for pasturage. Grasses, sage, wormwood and broom grow on those plains. South of Armenia the grape vine, lilac and jasmine are features. A species of maize grows wild on many of the warm lowland regions.
The forest laws (recent) are modeled after those of France; but no restrictive laws are enforced, and Turkey is being rapidly deprived of timber.
The principal wild animals of Eu ropean Turkey are the dog, cat, boar, badger, bear, civet, squirrel, chamois, roe, deer, beaver, mole, hedgehog, wolf, marten, fox, hare and bat. Fish are found in large quantities and in nearly all the waters. Coral and sponge fisheries are extensive. Leeches exist in the marshes. There are over 240 species of birds of which about 100 are songsters. In Asiatic Turkey the striped 'hyena, lion, bear, jackal, wolf and wild boar are fairly numerous, and the hare, hedgehog, jerboa, leopard, mole and wolf, abound m certain regions. The domestic animals are the horse (the camel is more common), ox, ass, goat and sheep. A famous species of goat is found in Angora (q.v.). The buffalo sup plants the ox in many parts of Asiatic Turkey. The bee and the silkworm are raised in many sections, but especially in the southwestern part of Asiatic Turkey.
Soil and The greater part of the lowland region of Turkey in Asia has a most productive soil, but lack of moisture makes some portions almost a desert. Irriga tion has reclaimed certain localities. The chief. occupations in all of the Ottoman Empire are agriculture and cattle raising, yet agricultural methods are most primitive, and only a small portion of the arable land is under cultivation. Agricultural development is retarded by the system of levying tithes on all the produce, and by the internal custom dues which oblige the farmer to pay a fee on all produce exported from one province to another.
The land is held under four different forms of tenure: (1) or Crown lands; (2) or pious foundations; (3) ((Mull kaneh,D or Crown grants; (4) or free hold property. The Crown lands form the largest portion and are held directly from the Crown. The government grants permission to cultivate an unoccupied tract and in return exacts a certain fee; but continues to exercise the right of seignory over the rented land. If
the lessee neglects to cultivate the land for three years in succession, it reverts to the Crown, and again becomes ((unoccupied land." The lands were instituted originally to provide for the maintenance of the religion of the state and for the education of the peo ple. These lands are now mostly in possession of government officials. The ((Mulikanehp lands were granted to the old feudal troops as a reward for military services. The title to such lands is hereditary, and the land is exempt from tax. The freehold lands do not exist to any great extent, hut some of the peasants have purchased ((Wilk° lands from the government. Two other categories of land are recognized in law — land set aside for com munity use (metruki) and or unutilized land (mevat). The entire body of law in re gard to real property is antiquated and in urgent need of revision and codification. A beginning in this direction was made in 1913 and again in 1918, under enactments providing for a general survey and revaluation of all landed property in the empire, together with a readjustment of taxes; for corporations to hold real estate in the name of the corporation; for the mortgaging of property as security for debts; for the suppression of guedik (guild) property; and for the extension of the right of inheritance. The farmers produce but little more than is required for their own use, on account of the system of levying tithes on all farm produce and the exportation taxes on all produce sold and exported to other countries, or to different parts of their own country. The system of levying these taxes is burden some and oppressive, the general practice being to farm it out to contractors.
Agriculture is carried on in a most primi tive fashion. The soil is in general very fer tile; the principal crops are tobacco, a world famous product, cereals of all kinds, cotton, figs, nuts, almonds, grapes, olives, all varieties of fruits, coffee, madder, opium and various gums. There are 16,567,775 acres under culti vation as follows: 13,689,474 under cereals; 473,085 acres under fruits and vegetables; 779, 982 acres under cotton, flax and other indus trial crops; and 1,213,530 acres under vines. Coffee is grown in the Hodeida region; Konia is the principal centre of opium pro duction; while tobacco is fairly widely dis tributed. There are about 18,000)000 acres under forest. The forest laws are patterned after those of France, but their enforcement is very lax and the country is being denuded rapidly of its timber. Pine, lards, oak, fir and the cedars are the more important timber trees. Mulberry plantations are on the increase and the silk-worm industry is being revived. The product is largely marketed in France. A recent livestock census showed 2,397,348 horned cattle, 163,691 buffaloes and 30,942 pigs in Turkey.