CHINA, Diplomatic Relations with. American intercourse with China began in 1784 with the arrival of the Empress of China near Canton, which for a century had been the only port open to foreign over-sea commerce. The supercargo of this vessel was Samuel Shaw, who was appointed first American consul at Canton by John Jay in 1786, and was later reappointed by Washington in 1790. For over half a century, American commerce (largely via the Northwest coast and Hawaii) continued with no official supervision beyond that of an American trader acting as consul without salary; and without recognition as an accredited repre sentative by China. The opening of American diplomatic relations with China, necessitated by the increase of American enterprise and interests in the Pacific and the Far East which finally attracted the protective and en couraging attention of the American govern ment to favor new enterprises, as illustrated by the famous Wilkes expedition of 1838-42,— was more directly the result of the British attack on Canton in 1840 in a demand for trade as a right, and of the subsequent treaty of Nanldng which accorded to the British privileges of residence at five ports and ceded the island of Hong kong. Caleb Cushing, appointed commissioner and envoy extraordinary to China by President Tyler in 1843, arrived at Macao in an American steamer, in February 1844, en route to Peking; but, yielding to the arguments of the Chinese governor against thepropriety of the trip, he awaited the arrival of Tsiyeng, the Emperor's commissioner. In July 1844, he negotiated the treaty of Wanghia granting privileges of trade and residence at five ports, of extra-territorial ity, of most -favored nation, of reception of consuls by Chinese officials on equal terms, and of direct diplomatic correspondence with Pe king. It also established port regulations. For over a decade after the ratification of the treaty, successive American commissioners or ministers —Alexander H. Everett, John W. Davis, Humphrey Marshall Robert W. McLane, Peter Parker—maintained legations, without per sonal interviews with the tranquil, elusive Chinese commissioner, who directed foreign af. fairs by literary conventionalities and masterly inactivity. Attempts to communicate directly with the Imperial government at Peking were without success. Meantime, Americans shared in the series of irritations and annoyances from the failure of treaty stipulations which cul minated in the Arrow affair of 1856, causing England to declare war — in which France joined, but to which the American government refused to become a party. Marshall who
arrived in 1852 at the culmination of the Taiping revolt found Yeh, the Imperial official, too busy to talk or to do more than to trifle through literary excuses and evasions. McLane (1853 54), was as unsuccessful, and found the insu- gent chiefs even more elusive; and, after a fruitless conference with the Imperial commis sioner, recommended co-operative coercion by a united Anglo-Franco-American fleet. Par ker (1855-57), also failing to bring Yeh to a personal interview, promptly recommended the °contemplated plan of concurrent actions with Great Britain and France, and later suggested the American occupation of Formosa as a means of securing satisfaction; but the Ameri can government remained neutral, hesitating to become involved in hostile demonstrations.
In 1857, experience having shown the neces sity of a revision of the and a more rigid enforcement of its provisions and the British and French having invited the United States to aid their demands on China by armed co-operation, the American government op pointed William B. Reed with instructions to co-operate with the allies only by moral sup port and peaceful means, but to demand suitable guarantees for trade protection and diplomatic residence with direct diplomatic intercourse at Peking. Mr. Reed was unable to in duce the tranquil, arrogant Yeh to meet him, or to recognize the need of a change in the treaty. Overcome by Yeh's literary skill which seemed to elude any form of literary retaliation known to the western mind, he con cluded that vigorous coercive action was neces sary to secure redress. Finally, accompanying the British and French fleets to Taku, and thence to Tientsin, after the Anglo-French hostilities which he had tried to prevent, and aided by Dr. W. A. Martin (a missionary), he negotiated a treaty (signed 18 June 1858), granting the opening of new ports,. the right of direct correspondence with the privy council at Peking and the annual visit of the minister under certain restrictions, and recognizing somewhat apathetically the right of Christians to practice and quietly teach their religion. Later, at Shanghai, he negotiated a supple convention for regulation of trade and revision of tariff. He also secured by convention an indemnity of $735,000 in satis faction of claims of American citizens for dam ages by the recent war between China and Great Britain. Less than half this sum was subse quently awarded to claimants by the American commission; and in 1885, Congress rather tardily voted the return of the unexpended balance — an unusual event in international re lations.