Under Christian III (1536-59), the Reforma tion was established in Denmark. Christian IV after his brief share in the Thirty Years' War proved one of the ablest of all the Danish rulers. His liberal and wise policy was, however, cramped in every direction by the arrogant nobles, to whose treasonable supineness Den mark owes the reverse by which she lost (1658) all the possessions she had hitherto retained in Sweden; and with the relinquishment of these, and consequently of the undivided control of the passage of the Sound, the country's former in ternational importance came finally to an end. The national disgraces and abasement which fol lowed led, in 1660, under Christian's son, Fred erick III, to the rising of the people against the nobles, and their surrender into the hands of the king of the supreme power. For the next hun dred years, chiefly marked by wars with Sweden, the peasantry were kept in serfdom, and the middle classes depressed; but by the end of the 18th century the peasants had been gradually emancipated, while many improvements had been effected in the mode of administering the laws, and the Danish kings, although autocrats, exercised a mild rule. The miseries of the reign of Frederick VI, who governed as regent from 1784, brought the country to the verge of ruin. Denmark having joined Russia in a com pact of the northern powers hostile to England, a fleet was sent into the Baltic and considerable injuries were inflicted by an attack on Copen hagen, in 1801, under Parker and Nelson. From this the country rallied; but in 1807 the British government, suspicious of an intention on the regent's part to violate his neutrality and take sides with Napoleon, demanded the surrender of the entire Danish navy, to be restored at the conclOsion of peace. A refusal was followed by the bombardment of Copenhagen in Sep tember 1807, and the fleet was given up; but this treatment drove Denmark into Napoleon's arms and with him the kingdom was obliged to co-operate until the dose of 1813.
By the Congress of Vienna, Denmark was compelled to cede Norway to Sweden. From this period a spirit of discontent grew in the duchies, degenerating into mutual animosity be tween the Danish and German population, which led to an open rupture with Denmark in 1848, immediately after the accession of Frederick VII. (For the whole question, see SCHLESWIG HOLSTEIN ). After alternate hostilities and armis tices, the war was virtually concluded in 1850, by the victory of the Danes at Idsted; but in 1863 the quarrel was renewed. On the death of Frederick in that year, Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Gliicksborg ascended the throne under the title of Christian IX, in con formity with the act known as the Treaty of London of 1852, by which the succession to the Danish crown had been settled on him and his descendants by his wife, Princess Louise of Hesse-Cassel, niece of King Christian VIII of Denmark. A pretender, backed by German in fluence and help, at once started up in the person of the eldest son of the Duke of Augustenborg, who assumed the title of Duke Frederick VIII of Schleswig-Holstein ; but his cause was speedily merged and lost sight of by Prussia and Austria in their direct aim of incorporating the, duchies with the German Confederation. Denmark, unaided by England and France, allies on whose support she had relied, was forced to go single-handed into the unequal contest. After a brave but utterly futile attempt at resistance, the Danes found themselves forced to submit to the terms dictated by their powerful foes, and resign not only Laurenburg and Holstein, but the ancient Crown-appanage of Schleswig. By
the peace of Vienna 1864, the Danish king bound himself to abide by the decision which Prussia and Austria should adopt in regard to the destiny of the severed Danish provinces. The dissensions between these two great powers, which led to the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, resulted in the triumph of Prussia, and since then the duchies have remained an integral part of that state. Since the war, Denmark, although reduced to the narrow limits of the islands and Jutland, has recovered from its fall, and has greatly prospered, in spite of the spread of socialistic opinions, and the political dissensions that have ranged the government and Lands thing, supported by the press of the capital, against the Folkething and majority of the people.
In 1870 war broke out between Germany and France and an alliance was formed be tween France and Denmark, with a view to the protection of the latter from German ag gression. The result of the war was the downfall of the French Empire; this treaty was dissolved, and Denmark felt that her safety lay in a strict neutrality. Yet the re sentment of the country toward Germany was by no means allayed, and the general popula tion were indignant that so many leading politi cians were anxious to draw closer the lines that bound Germany and Denmark together. This indignation frequently broke out into such violent manifestations that at least it became evident that anything like a close alliance and understanding between the two states seemed impossible.
The 5th article of the treaty made between Austria and Prussia (23 Aug. 1866) had given to Denmark some prospect of recovering the northern districts of Holstein. There arose, however, considerable discussion with Prus sia about the realization of this hope, and Prussia seemed reluctant to give any guaran tee for the restoration of the territory. So long as the Emperor Napoleon was in power, this article, which he had not only suggested, but had maintained and advocated, the hope of Denmark for the surrender of North Schles wig appeared reasonable. After the catas trophe of Sedan (1870) this hope was for ever abandoned. The French Republic took no interest in Schleswig, Italy was equally in different, England was occupied in other mat ters and had learned in the Crimea to shun all meddling with other people's quarrels. The rage of the Danes was roused in 1879 on learning that Germany was discussing with Austria the abolition of Article 5 in the treaty, and even the Danish court, by the marriage of the Princess Thyra, in 1878, with the Duke of Cumberland, whose dislike for the Germans was well known, had shared, by anticipation, in this expression of feeling. This national senti ment of the Danes took almost a warlike char acter. In the Rigsdag, 1873, legislative meas ures were proposed for the reorganization of the land and sea forces and the fortification of Copenhagen. The ruling party in the Folke thing strongly advocated an increase in the i army and navy, and an improvement in the coast fortifications; this was advisable as a demonstration of power which would be of effect in the case of war between other nations, but would also secure Denmark against the en croachments of Germany. The representatives of rural constituencies or Agrarians, however, together with the Radicals, were opposed to an active policy on the part of Denmark. The Conservatives, with the sympathy of King Christian, were for warlike preparations, by the increased national defenses.