Abdu-l-Mejid, son of Mahmud II., ascended the throne of Osman in his 16th year. The loss of the battle of Nozib, the treachery of the Capudan pasha, who deserted to Mehemet Ali with the whole of the Turkish fleet, and the advance of the victorious Ibr;thins, seemed to foreshadow the immediate dissolution of the Turkish empire. This disaster was prevented however by the treaty of London (July 15, 1340), in fulfilment of which an Austro-English fleet bombarded and took Acre, Sidon, and several other towns on the coast of Syria, which Ibnillsim Pasha was obliged to evacuate. Negotiations for peace soon followed, which terminated in the restoration of Syria to the Porte, and the recognition of Mehemet Ali as hereditary pasha of Egypt and its dependencies, upon payment of an annual tribute.
[1840.18554 On the death of Mahmud II., the old Turkish party, opposed to all innovations, and especially to all imitations of the polity of Christian states, hoped that no more' would be heard of reform. But their hopes were blasted by the appearance of the Hattisherif of Gulhan6, dated Nov. 3, 1839, and countersigned by Reschid Pasha, which contained guarantees for the life, property, and honour of all the subjects of the Sultan, irrespective of person or religion, and promised the abolition of the arbitrary recruiting system, and the hiltroduction of en impartial system of taxation. The issue of this charter threw the empire into commotion ; the old Turks, headed by Iliga Pasha in the capital (who was accused of being under the influence of Russia), made a formidable opposition to the execu tion of the decree ; the Turkish subjects of the Sultan, brought up io principles of ascendancy and contempt for Christians, rose in insurrection to defend their privileges. The Christians of European Turkey, by far the most numerous class of the subjects of the Sultan in that part of the empire, long groaniug under oppression, were accustomed (and taught) to fook for protection and deliverance to Russia. France had to interpose frequently (but never offensively to tho Porte) to protect the Christians of the east ; and the English and Austrian ambassadors at the Sublime Porte embraced every opportunity of keeping up the influence of their several governments. Thus, not only did foreign nations interfere in the internal administra tion of the empire, but their ambassadors seemed to be a act of players with Turkey for a chessboard. The fair execution and firm establiahment of the system mooted in the Hattisherif, would have put an end to this state of things, by giving the Christian subjects of the Porte the protection of law, and depriving them of all excuse and desire for seeking foreign protection. Russia could never coax a people to take shelter behind her shield who lived secure under the seem of law. The Sultan's government it is true has given many indication, of penes-critics in reform, aud has issued many order. in furtherance of the system (among others one in 1855 for the reception of Christian evidence in the courts of justice), but the fact is undeni able, that the central government is not able to enforce the tanzimet in the provinces.
A fine instance of the noble generosity that lies at the bottom of the Turkish character was exhibited to the world in the refusal of tho Sultan Abdu-l-Mejid to surrender the Hungarian refugees to the imperious demands of Austria and Russia in 1849. Nevertheless the influence of Russia, however it might diminish at court, was rapidly extending among the Christian population of the Porte. Indeed, from the mere terms of tho treaties of Kainarji, Adrianople, and Uukiar Skelessi, it is clear that Russia was ever drawing the noose of political dependence closer and tighter round the neck of Turkey. The crisis
seemed to arrive, when in 1853 the Czar Nicholas, through his minister Menzikolif, demanded openly the protectorate of the Christian subjects of the Sultan, and oven the right to adjudicate in certain cases of dispute ; and insolently occupied Moldavia and Wallachia, as a material guarantee' for compliance with his demands. In conse quence of this, a Turkish army under Omar Pasha occupied the Balkan and the fortresses of the Danube; and French and English fleets cast anchor in Bulks Bay. In October following the Porte declared war against Russia, and appealed to France and England for aid. In the campaign that followed in Little Wallachia the Russians were on every occasion defeated by the Turks ; but in November the Russian fleet, issuing from the harbour of Sevastopol, attacked and utterly destroyed the Turkish fleet in the roads of Sinub. In the following March (1854) the Russisne crossed the Danube, and seized the fortresses in the Dobrudacha ; and about the same time England and Franca declared war, and the fleets eutered the Black Sea. On the 15th of Juno the Russians, after great efforts and a vast loss of men, raised the siege of Silistria (French aud English armies now appearing in Turkey, encamped at Yarns), and retreated across the Danube. The Turks also crossed the Danube. The Russians were defeated at Giurgevo, aud soon after evacuated the principalities, which, in accordance with the terms of a treaty with the Porte, were occupied by Austrian forces. Mean while the French and English fleets entered the Black Sea, bombarded Odessa, and forced tho Russian fleet to take refuge in the harbour of Sevastopol An Anglo-French army landed in the Crimea on Sep tember 14, 1854, under the command of Marshal St. Arnaud and Lord Raglan. The battle of Alma followed on the 20th, in which the Russians under Prince Menzikoff were utterly defeated by the allies, and the road was open to Sevastopol To secure ready communication with their fleets however the allied army, by a flank march, seized upon the harbours of Balaklava and Kamiesch, and the southern side of Sevastopol was invested ou the 26th of September, the Russians having in the interim, by sinking seven men-of-war at the mouth of the harbour, blocked up the entrance by sea to this great naval and military arsenal. Here, on the dreary heights of Sevastopol, throughout the terrible winter of 1854-5, the allies maintained the hard struggle and obstinate siege against a skilful foe within and a countless Russian army without, humbling the name and prestige of Russia by the vie tories of Inkermann and 13alaklava ; and kept tho eyes of the world fixed upon the spot where the whole interest of the war was now concentrated throughout the entire spring aud summer of 1855, electric agency flashing to all parts of Europe tidings of losses and sufferings often, of defeat never, and of many a brilliant success (not least of which was the victory of Tchernaya, August 16, in which the Sardinians, now numbered among the allies, wou their spurs); until at last, after a long bombardment, the French captured tho Malakoff tower on the 8th of September, and the allies occupied the southern side of Sevastopol.
(Hammer, Geseltichte des Osmanischen Belches ; Des Osmanischen Reiches Staatseerfassung; Knolles; Thorton; Slade; Urquhart, Turkey and its Resource.,; Napier, The War in Syria ; Marsigli, State Alilitars deW Iniperio Ottomanne ; D'Ohsaon, Tableau General de r Empire Ottoman ; Tett, lIlemoires star les Tares d les Tartars; Ubicini, Lettrce sir lee Turyuie ; Official Papers.) •