The latter years of the reign of Mahmud I. were troubled by a short war with Persia; by troubles in Egypt and at Baghdad, and by the disturbances produced in Arabia by the Wahabites. Mahmnd 1. died a natural death in 1754.
[1754-1757.] The short reign of Osman Ill., brother of Mahmud L is not remarkable for any events of importance, except some diplo matic transaction with Prussia.
[1757-1773.] Ile was succeeded by Mnstaph* III., eon of Ahmed III. This prince took an active share in the administration. The increas ing power of Russia induced him to declare war against the empress Catherine IL The pretext for this war was to save Poland from ruin through Russian interference in her civil troubles. The first idea of dismembering Poland however was formed by the same Sultan, Muatapha III., at whose order the Reis Efendi Isms% Riff proposed to the Austrian ambassador, Baron Thngut, in a secret conference, to divide Poland between the Sultan and the emperor Joseph IL This proposition, rejected by Austria, was made ten months before Prince Henry of Prose* who is generally believed to be the first author of that project, suggested the partition of Poland to Catherine.
War was declared in 1768. It was glorious for Russia and most disastrous for Turkey. The Russian field-marshal Rumanzow took all the fortresses between the Danube and the Dnieper, and the whole country between these two rivers fell into the hands of the Russians. They overran the Crimea, and after having conquered the island of Taman, crossed the strait and took Kertth, Ycnikale, and Kaffa in 1771. The khan Maksnd-Ohiray abandoned his capital Bakje-Scrai, and fled to Constantinople, and the Russians had Shahin-Ghirsy elected in his place. In the beginning of the war, s. Russian fleet, commanded by Spiritow, Alexis Orlow, and Elphinatone, left Kron stadt for the Mediterranean, proclaimed the independence of the Greeks, and in 1770 destroyed the Turkish fleet in the bay of Chums, the greatest disaster which had befallen the navy of Turkey since the battle of Lepanto. A truce followed at the interposition of Austria, and congresses took place at Fokslaan and Bukarest; but the negotia tions proved abortive, and hostilities recommenced in 1773. The Turks were again beaten at Rusjuk and Kainarji, and although the scraskcr Osman-Pasha obtained considerable advantages over the Russians at Siliatria, Rumanzow defeated him in his turn at Kdrasu in Bulgaria. Shortly afterwards Sultan Muetapha 1 f i. died (Doc. 24,1773). [1773-1789.] 'Abdu-I-Elansid I., or Ahmed 1V., son of Ahmed IlL, succeeded. Field-Marshal Rurnauzow continued his victories : his generals, Kamenaki and Snwarow, defeated the Turks at Baearjik and Koslije, and in the month of July Kamenski entering the passes of the Balkan besieged the grand-vizir Musa Oghli. The Porte now yielded to the propositions of Russia, and peace was concluded in July, 1774, at Kuchirk-KaInarji By this peace Russia obtained the Great and the Little Kahartls, the fortresses of Azof, Kilburun, Kertch, and Yeulkale ; the country between the Bog and the Dnieper ; the free navigation of the Black Sea, and a free passage through the Bosporus and the Dardanelles ; the co-protectorship over Moldavia and Wallachia; and the protectorship over all the Greek churches within the Turkish empire. The khanat of the Crimea was declared independent, but it soon became a prey to Russia. Three years after wards the Porte was obliged to cede the Bekowina to Austria.
After Catherine had united the Crimea with her empire, immense preparations for war with Russia were made throughout the Turkish empire, yid Catherine in her turn concluded an alliance with Austria.
The Porte declared war in 1787. Her armies obtained some advan tages against the Austrians, but the Russians defeated the Turks and took Oczakow by storm in 1799. Sultan 'Abdfi-1-11arnid died soon after.
[17894807.1 Selina If I., son of Mustapha III., and nephew of Abd4-1-Ilamid, who succeeded, was one of the most enlightened men of the east, but his enlighteurnent did nob ward off heavy disasters from his country. The war continued : the Turks were beaten at Martinestie by the united Austrians and Russians ; the Austrians took Belgrade ; the Russians, Bender and lama'il ; and Turkey would have been overrun, but for the intervention of England, Prussia, and Sweden. Thus peace was coucluded in 1791 at Szistowa with Austria, which restored her conquests to Turkey ; and with Russia in 1792 at Jassy. By the peace of Jassy the Porte consented to the incorporation of the Crimea with Russia, and the Dniester became the frontier between the two empire*. Sultan Selim now began his work of reformation, but daring a long period his efforts were checked by troubles in Syria and Egypt : by the rebellion of Paswin Oghlu, pasha of Widdin; and by the increasing power of 'AR Pasha of Janina. The conquest of Egypt by Bonaparte led to a war with France. The grand-vizir, Yfisuf Pasha, was routed in the battle of Abukir, and his army was completely destroyed by the French, but Egypt was taken by the English, who restored it to the Porte in 17503. Previously to this, Selim had concluded an alliance with Russia, Naples, and England, in consequence of which a united Turkish and Russian fleet took posses sion of the Ionian islands, which, conformably to a treaty concluded between Salim and the emperor Paul, were constituted into a republic (1800). Selim acquired the protectorship of this now republic ou condition of consenting to the incorporation of the kingdom of Georgia with Russia. Peace with Franca was concluded in 1802, France acquiring the free navigation on the Black Sea, a privilege which was soon afterwards granted to England and to several other European powers. Selim at last began his reforms. lie put his forces on a footing similar to that of European armies ; introduced several changes into the system of taxation, and into the administrative divisions of the empire; he gave a new organisation to the divan ; but in order to fill the treasury he debased the money. In the meantime the jealousy of England and Russia was excited by the increasing infiueuce of the French ambassador, Count Sebastiani; and a war broke out between Turkey and Russia, assisted by England (December, 1806). Admiral Duckworth forced the passage of the Dardanelles, and threatened to bombard Constantinople, but fearing that his retreat would bo cut oft sailed back to the Mediterranean. The Russians, on the other hand, made continual progress on the Danube. The defeats of tho army were considered by the people as • consequence of the new organisation ; the Janissaries breaking out in rebellion, occupied Pere, and directed their ordnance against the seraglio. The Mufti jollied their party, and by a fetwi declared "that Sultan Selim Ill. had forfeited the throne because ha had procreated no heir, and introduced the Nizam Jedid and several other innovations." Thus Sella] III. was deposed, and confined to the seraglio.