4. Although man is an eminently social being, he is also individual, morally, intellectually, and physically ; and, while his individuality will endure even beyond this life, he is necessitated, by his physical condition, to appropriate and to produce, and thus to imprint his individuality upon the ma terial world around, to create property. But man is not only an appropriating and producing, be is also an exchanging, being. He always exchanges and always intercommunicates. This constant in tertwining of man's individualism and socialism cre ates mutual claims of protection, rights, the neces sity of rules, of laws : in one word, as individuals and as natural members of society, men produce and require government. No society, no cluster of men, no individuals banded together even for a temporary purpose, can exist without some sort of government instantly springing up. Govern ment is natural to man and characteristic. No animals have a government; no authority exists among them ; instinct and physical submission alone exist among them. Man alone has laws which ought to be obeyed but may be disobeyed. Ex/inn:don. accumulation, development, progress, relapses, disintegration, violence, error, supersti tion, the necessity of intercommunication, wealth and poverty, peculiar disposition, temperament, configuration of the country, traditional types, pride and avarice, knowledge end ignorance, saga city of individuals, taste, activity and sluggishness, noble or criminal bias, position, both geographical and chronological,—all that affects numbers of men affects their governments, and an endless variety of governments and political societies has been the consequence; but, whatever form of government may present itself to us, the fundamental idea, huwever rudely nonceived, is always the protection of suoiety and its members, security of property and person, the administration of justice therefor, and the united efforts of society to furnish the means to authority to carry out its objeots,—contri bution, which, viewed as imposed by authority, is taxation. Those bands of robbers which occa sionally have risen in disintegrating societies, as in India, and who merely robbed and devastated, avow ing that they did not mean to administer justice or protect the people, form no exception, although the extent of their soldiery and the periodicity of their raids caused them to be called governments. What little of government oontinued to exist was still the remnant of the communal government of the oppressed hamlets; while the robbers themselves could not exist without a government among them selves.
5. Aristotle classified governments according to the seat of supreme power, and he has been gene rally followed down to very recent times. Accord ingly, we had Monarchy, that government in which the supreme power is vested in one man, to which was added, at a later period, the idea of hereditari ness. Aristocracy, the government in which the supreme power is vested in the aristoi, which does not mean, in this ease, the best, but the excelling ones, the prominent, i.e. by property and influence. Privilege is its characteristic. Its corresponding degenerate government is the Oligarohy (from oli gee, little, few), that government in which supreme power is exercised by a few privileged ones, who generally have arrogated the power. Democracy,
that government in which supreme power is vested in the people at large. Equality is one of its charac teristics. Its degenerate correspondent is the ochlo cracy (from ochlos, the rabble), for which at present the barbarous term mobocracy is frequently used.
6. But this classification was insufficient even at the time of Aristotle, when, for instance, theo cracies existed; nor is the seat of supreme power the only characteristic, nor, in all respects, by any means the chief characteristic). A royal govern ment, for instance, may he less absolute than a re publican government. In order to group together the governments and political societies which have existed and are still existing, with philosophical discrimination, we must pay attention to the chief power-holder (whether he be one or whether there are many), to the pervading spirit of the adminis tration or wielding of the power, to the character istics of the society or the influencing interests of the same, to the limitation or entirety of public power, to the peculiar relations of the citizen to the state. Indeed, every principle, relation, or con dition characteristically influencing or shaping society or government in particular may furnish ne with a proper division. We propose, then, the following Grouping of Political Societies and Governments.
I. According to the supreme power-holder or the placing of supremepower, whether really or nomi nally so.
The power-holder may be one, a few, many, or all; and•we have, accordingly : A. Principalities, that is, states the rulers of which are set apart from the ruled, or inhe rently differ from the ruled, as in the case of the theocracy.
1. Monarchy.
a. Patriarchy.
b. Chieftain government (as our In dians).
e. Sacerdotal monarchy (as the States of the Church; former sovereign bish oprics).
d. Kingdom, or Principality proper.
e. Theocracy (Jehovah was the chief magistrate of the Israelitic state).
2. Dyarchy. It exists in Siam, and exist ed occasionally in the Roman em pire; not in Sparta, because Sparta was a republio, although her two he reditary generals were called kings.
B. Republic.
1. Aristocracy.
a. Aristocracy proper.
aa. Aristocracies which are democre cies within the body of aristocrats (as the former Polish govern ment).
bb. Organic internal government (as Venice formerly).
b. Oligarchy.
e. Sacerdotal republic, or Hierarchy.
d. Plutocracy; if, indeed, we adopt this term from antiquity for a govern ment in which it is the principle that the possessors of great wealth con stitute the body of aristocrats.
2. Democracy.
a. Democracy proper.
b. Ochlocracy (Mob-rule), mob mean ing unorganized multitude.
II. According to the unity of public power, or its division and limitation.
A. Unrestricted power, or absolutism.
1. According to the form of government.
a. Absolute monarchy, or despotism.
b. Absolute aristocracy (Venice); abso lute sacerdotal aristocracy, etc. etc. eto.
‘.. Absolute democracy (the government of the Agora, or market democracy).
2. According to the organization of the ad ministration.
a. Centralized absolutism. Centralism, called bureaucracy when carried on by writing; at least, bureaucracy has very rarely existed, if ever, without centralism.