The dominion of Austria and the rule of auto cratic princes, upheld by the Hapsburgs and the Holy Alliance, could not endure in Italy forever. Crushed under an iron despotism, the country was pervaded by a network of secret so cieties, which kept up a constant agitation for constitutional government. (See CARBONARI.) The French rule had introduced into the country certain liberal and progressive ideas which made their impression upon the people. But the princes, strong in the support of Aus tria, refused all concessions, and by means of an elaborate police system succeeded in check ing the progress of liberalism. Risings pro moted by army officers took place in Naples (1320) and Piedmont (1821). In Naples Ferdi nand I. was forced to grant a constitution, but yielded to Metternich at the Congress of Laibaeh, and in May, 1321, was rOstablished in his des potic sway with the aid of Austrian troops. He now entered upon a course of vin dictive persecutions against the Liberals. The Piedmontese insurrection led to the abdication of Victor Emmanuel I. in favor of his brother, Charles Felix. a determined absolutist. He in troduced some useful reforms in his Piedmontese possessions. hut in general ruled in accordance with the spirit of Austria's autocracy. In Naples. Francis I., the son and successor of Ferdinand I., continued the iniquitous policy of his father. The Government of the Papal States under Leo 'XII. was oppressive. reactionary, and incapable. Tuscany alone, during the decade of 1820-30, enjoyed a fair measure of freedom and prosperity under its Grand Duke, Leopold II. The July Revolution of 1330, which drove the Bourbons from the throne of France, had its echoes in Italy. In 1331 insurrections broke out in Mo dena and in the Papal States, and in Bologna a congress of representatives from the revolted Papal States. excepting Rome and a few cities in the Starch of Ancona, adopted a constitution establishing a republican form of government. Austria promptly intervened with force of arms, resubjeeted Modena to its tyrant. suppressed the revolutionary movement in the dominions of the Pope. and placed a garrison in Bologna. Upon the death of Charles Felix in 1331. the succession in the Kingdom of Sardinia passed to Charles Albert (q.v.). Prince of Carignan. repre sentative of the yomwer line of Savoy. There had independence in tire agitations of 1820-21, Now, the patriot Giuseppe Mazzini issued an address to the new , who was known to hold more liberal views than others of his house, calling upon him to become the leader and liberator of Italy. From this time the idea of Italian unifica tion and independence grew in strength and found its hope in the Sardinian monarehy, for it had become apparent that the cause of reaction had its only support in Austria, which must be driven from the Peninsula by soine power strong enough to assume the leadership in Italy. Maz zini at the saline time founded the secret political society, Young Italy (q.v.), whose propaganda, was republican, but also nationalist. The impulse to a national uprising was afforded by Pope Pius IX., who, immediately after his election in 1846, entered upon an extensive series of reforms in the Papal States. An amnesty was proclaimed for political offenders, political exiles were per mitted to return, the liberty of the press was established, the nighest offices were opened to laymen, and a council of notables was summoned to initiate new reforms. The example of the Pope was followed by several Italian princes, Reforms were introduced in Lucca and Tuscany, and, above all, in Piedmont. where a great ad vance was made toward constitutional govern ment (1S47). Reform, however, was only preparatory to revolution. In January, 184S, the people of Palermo rose and drove out the Neapolitan garrison, and on February 10th Ferdinand II. granted his people a constitution and summoned a separate Parliament for Sicily. At the same time Leopold II. issued a constitu tion for Tuscany. Charles Albert did the same for Piedmont, and Pius IX., who had now begun to feel alarmed at the rapidity with which the course of reform was progressing, consented. un willingly, to a constitution for the Papal States (March 14, 1848). The revolutionary outbreak in Vienna on March 13, 1848, which drove Metter nich from power, was the signal for a rising in Milan (March IStI). The Austrian troops, under Radetzky, were driven from the city after a five days' battle with the populace. On March 22d Venice rose under Manin, and expelled the Austrians, and on the following day the Republic of Saint Mark was reestablished with Manin at its head. The rulers of Parma and Modena were forced to flee. In Piedmont there was a clamor for war to drive the Austrians from Italy, and Charles Albert, after long hesitation, decided to mobilize his army and go to the assistance of Lombardy, which he entered March 25th, ac claimed as the liberator of Italy. He was joined by 13,000 Neapolitan troops and contingents from Tuscany and Lombardy. In May, however, Fer dinand II. of Naples, after bombarding this capi tal. reestablished his despotic sway, and the sup port of the Neapolitans was withdrawn from the cause of liberation. The Pope, too, declared him self against war with Austria. On .Tuly 25th the Piedmontese suffered an overwhelming defeat at Custozza, and on August Gth Radetzky rei;ntered Milan. An armistice was concluded on August Oth, by the terms of which Charles Albert was to evacuate Lombardy. Venetia, and the duchies of Parma and Modena. The war party at Turin, however, spurred on the King to renew hostilities, and in March. 1849. the armistice was suspended. The Austrians under Radetzky crossed the Ticino, and on March 23d overwhelmed the Piedmontese army at Novara. On the night after the battle Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son, Vic tor Emmanuel 11. In Central and Southern Italy reaction was triumphant. Pope Pius IX., who saw that the revolutionary movement was fast getting beyond his control, in September, 1848, appointed a new ministry under the leadership of Count Pellegrino Rossi, to whom lie looked for the restoration of the Papal influence. Rossi was hated by the Republicans and the ultra-Catholics, and was assussinated on 'November 15th. The Pope fled from Rome on the 24th, leaving the party of tiazzini in control, and took refuge in Gaeta. On February 5, 1849, the temporal power
of the Pope was abolished, and Rome was con stituted a republic. In Tuscany the people rose under Guerrazzi, and compelled Leopold 11. to flee. In April a French army of 8000 men was dispatched under Marshal oudinot to suppress the Roman Itepublic. Oudinot entered Rome in duly, in spite of the heroic resistance of Garibaldi, and the Papal authority was reestab lished. Austrian troops had overrun Tuscany in April. Ferdinand II. had dispatched an army under Felangeri to reduce Sicily. Messina was bombarded and taken in September, 1848, and Palermo occupied in May, 1849. The old ri*.gime was reestablished in the island. The wave of reaction flooded the whole of Italy, except Pied mont. The Austrian troops came back with more excesses and brutality than before, and a merci less course of discipline began for the unhappy country.
The Kingdom of Sardinia, with the liberal Constitution which Charles Albert had granted in 184S, remained the only refuge. of nationalism and liberalism, though with its diverse and mixed population, alien to the rest of Italy, it was not the most promising ground for tire national propaganda. Victor Emmanuel II. adhered firmly to the Constitution, retained the tricolor flag, the symbol of free Italy, continued the liberty of the press, and encouraged political refugees from the other States to make Piedmont their asylum. The advent of Cavour (q.v.) as head of the Ministry (1852) opened a vigorous, aggres sive policy, in which the Minister was fully supported by the King. To make Sardinia felt as a force among the nations, and able to com mand a hearing. the active alliance with England and France, which made Sardinia a participant in the Crimean War (q.v.), was effected. Then in tire Congress of Paris, in 1850, Cavour was able to urge the condition of Italy as a matter of international concern, and to secure an acknowledgment of the claim, in spite of the protest of Austria. The disposition of Napoleon III. offering the most hope of active assistance, Cavour effected an understanding with the French Emperor in a meeting at in July, 1858, and proceeded to increase the armed strength of Piedmont, acting boldly with a view to bringing on a war with Austria. The powers endeavored to arrange matters and to bring about the dis armament of both Sardinia and Austria, hut the latter refused, and in an ultimatum (April 23, IS591 demanded the disarmament of Sardinia. This being refused. Austria opened hostilities. France came to the aid of Sardinia. and the allied armies won with some difficulty the battles of Magenta (June 4th) and Solferino (dune 24th). All Northern Italy was preparing to join Sar dinia, when Napoleon deserted his ally and con cluded the preliminary treaty of Villafranca, July 11. 1859. By the Treaty of Zurich, November 10th, between France. Austria, and Sardinia, Aus tria ceded Lombardy, with the exception of Man tua and Peschiera, to France, which was to transfer them to Sardinia, but retained its hold on Venetia. The Grand Duke of Tuscany and the Dukes of Parma and Modena, who had been driven out, were to be restored only at the de mand of their subjects made without compulsion by any foreign power. A confederation under the Pope was proposed for Central Italy. This, how ever, the people of the Central States rejected. A plebiscite was rendered favorable to the union of the duchies and the Romagna with Sardinia (March, 1860). The Pope excommunicated Vic tor Emmanuel and his people, and Austria and Naples protested, but Napoleon III. supported Sardinia. As the price of French assistance, Napoleon exacted the cession of Savoy and Nice, which became a part of France. The situa tion created by the victories in the cause of national freedom in the northern half of Italy invited the great patriot leader Garibaldi to undertake the task of liberating the South. In April, 1860, Palermo rose against Francis II., the successor to the odious Ferdinand II. on the throne of the Two Sicilies. On the 6th of May Garibaldi, with about a thousand vol unteers, embarked at Genoa to go to the aid of the revolutionists. He landed at Marsala on May 1 Ith, and his forces were soon increased to 4000 men. He declared himself dictator of Sicily in the name of Victor Emmanuel, 'King of Italy,' and on June 6th he entered Palermo. On July 20th he defeated the Neapolitans at Milazzo. Messina, the last stronghold of the Bourbons in Sicily, fell on July 25th, and Gari baldi with 5000 men crossed into Italy (August 20-21) meeting with no resistance. On Septem ber 7th he entered Naples with a small escort, Francis II. having fled to Gaeta, after making a vain attempt to save his throne by the grant of a constitution and the promise of many reforms. The liberator proclaimed the reign of Victor Em manuel. The Sardinian Government had been openly in sympathy with Garibaldi, but had care fully abstained from affording any pretext for the intervention of the foreign powers. This contin gency, however, seemed to be threatened when Garibaldi, not satisfied with conquering the Two Sicilies, prepared to invade the States of the Church. There was also the danger that Gari baldi might come to grief against the Neapolitan army, which was still loyal to Francis IL. and which, 40,000 strong. was holding the line of the Volturno. Victor therefore, deter mined to assume charge of the movement for 'United Italy. The Sardinian forces under Fanti and Cialdini entered the Papal States, which were in revolt. and on September S. 1860, Cialdi ni defeated the Papal army under Lamorieiere at C'astelfidardo. Garibaldi held his own against the Neapolitans on the Volturno. On Octo ber 9th Victor Emmanuel assumed personal command at Ancona, and on November 7th he entered Naples with Garibaldi, who surrendered the dictatorship into the King's hands. Gaeta, the last stronghold of the Bourbons, held out for three months. hut on the departure of the French fleet was compelled to surrender (February 13. 1801). Already had the Sicilies, Umbria, and the Marches declared by plebiscite for annexation to Sardinia (October, 1860), and on February 18, 1861, the first Italian Parliament was opened in Turin by Victor Emmanuel. On February 26th the Parliament conferred the title of King of Italy upon Victor Emmanuel, who formally as sumed it on March 17th.