The death of Cavour, June 6, 1861, was a heavy loss to the new Kingdom, which still needed the genius of his statesmanship. A Ministry under Baron Ricasoli had a brief term of office, and was succeeded, March 31, 1862, by the Min istry of Rattazzi• whose subserviency to France caused much distrust among the Italian Liberals. The restlessness of Garibaldi, who was impatient of delay in the acquisition of Venetia and Rome, was a grave cause of disquiet for the Government, as it was highly important that the new State should not hastily involve itself in a new struggle without outside support. After traveling about Italy, engaging in the organization of 'rifle elubs,' the irrepressible patriot went to Sicily with the avowed intention of organizing an expedition against Rome. A royal proclamation (dictated by the fear of French intervention) declaring him to be in rebellion did not deter the Sicilians from rallying around the Garibaldian standard, and on August 22, 1862, Sicily was declared in a state of siege, the Liberal clubs were dissolved, and an armed force was dispatched to disperse the volunteers. Garibaldi, having landed in Calabria, was met by the royal troops at Aspro monte (August 29th), and after a slight en gagement, in which he was severely wounded, was forced to surrender. In spite of the tem porary check to the conquest of the Papal States, their acquisition was inevitable. In 1865 Florence became the capital of Italy. This was but a step nearer toward Rome. In 1866 Italy allied herself with Prussia against Austria, and although her army was defeated at Custozza (June 24th), and her fleet at Lissa (July 20th), she was enabled to participate in the Prussian triumph, and in October Venetia became part of the Kingdom of Italy. (See SEVEN WEEKs' W.A.a.) The protection of the Papal territory by France alone stood in the way of that com pletion of unification which required for its fullest expression the establishment of the Gov ernment in the Eternal City. In I567 Garibaldi headed a new expedition against the Papal terri tory, hut Napoleon III., from motives of policy. refused to permit the extinction of the temporal power of the Pope. A French force defeated the Garibaldians after a severe engagement at Mentana (November 3d), and this event de stroyed the good feeling which had prevailed be tween Italy and France since 1859. At last, in 1870, the urgent necessities of the Franco-Ger man War compelled the Emperor Napoleon to withdraw his forces, and once more Italy profited by Prussia's victories. The Italian forces en tered the lands of the Church on September 1 Ith, and on the 20th made their entry into Rome. The Roman people declared for union with Italy in October by 133.000 votes against 1500, and on July 2, 1871, Rome became the capital of United Italy.
The problems of the new State were not sim ple ones. The task of political organization and consolidation was complicated by the great diver sity in economic, cultural, and social conditions, between the north and the south. The inhabitants of Southern Italy. kept for centuries under a
burdensome despotism, showed themselves, on the whole, deficient in training for self-govern ment, which conies more naturally to the Tus cans, Lombard,, Piedmontese, and Venet inns. After 1879 the smith was most influential in the politic: of the Kingdom, and served to give them an unstable and factional character, in which the Mafia (q.v.) and the Camorra (q.v.) were not altogether without a part. Almost. as a neces sity, arising from the relations by which its in dependence was secured, Italy endeavored to maintain a plain the great powers, and this entailed for the army and navy, which became insupportable burdens upon the people. In 1883 Italy entered the Triple Alli ance. (q.v.) with Germany and Austria. The gravest problem. however, that presented itself to the Italian Government was that of its rela tions with the Vatican. Ever since the Papal tire was shorn of its temporal power, the Pope, re fusing to recognize the guarantees to his spiritual authority offered by the secular Government, has insisted upon regarding himself as a prisoner in the Vatican. The Clerical Party in Italy, acting under instructions, has abstained from participa tion in national though not from municipal poli tics. After the death of Cavour there was a notable lack of unselfish and statesmanlike lead ership. Francesco Crispi (q.v.) being almost the only one who rose above the level of a mere politician and head of a faction. This produced corruption in office and the extensive use of the Government patronage and influence to reward political friends and to promote private financial operations. Until 1S76 the constitutional Right retained control for the most part. but in that year, with the accession of the :Ministry of the Sicilian Depretis, the radical Left came into P ower In I881 an electoral reform act was passed by the Chambers, by which the suffrage was vastly extended. Between 1880 and 1S90 Italy acquired considerable territory in Africa on the Red Sea littoral. Aggressions upon Abys sinia brought about strained relations with that kingdom, which finally led to war. After the Italian army had met a crushing defeat at Adowa (March 1, 1S96) much of the territory that had been snatched from Abyssinia was re stored by the Treaty of Adis Abeba, October 26, 1896. Italy also gave up its unfounded claim to a protectorate over Abyssinia. (See ABYS SINIA ERITREA.) In February, 1S90. an Ital ian protectorate was established over the Somali coast, south of British Somaliland. Victor Em manuel died January 9, 1878, and was succeeded by his son Humbert (Umberto) I. The bread riots of 1S98, with h assumed threatening dimen sions, led to arbitrary measures of repression, and to a restriction of the freedom of the press. On July 29, 1900, King Humbert was assas sinated at Monza by an Italian anarchist, Angelo Bresci. The King's son, Victor Emmanuel III., succeeded to the throne. Italy took part in the military expedition of the Powers to China in 1900.