France in the 18th and 19th Centuries

FRANCE IN THE 18TH AND 19TH CENTURIES University of Paris from the 17th Century.—The Univer sity of Paris, indeed, was distracted, throughout the 17th century, by theological dissensions—in the first instance owing to the strug gle that ensued after the Jesuits had effected a footing at the College de Clermont, and subsequently by the strife occasioned by the teaching of the Jansenists. Towards the close of the cen tury a certain revival took place, and a succession of illustrious names—Pourchot, Rollin, Grenan, Coffin, Demontempuys, Cre vier, Lebeau—appear on the roll of its teachers. But this improve ment was soon interrupted by the controversies excited by the promulgation of the bull Unigenitus in 1713, condemning the tenets of Quesnel. At last, in 1762, the parlement of Paris issued a decree (Aug. 6) placing the colleges of the Jesuits at the disposal of the university, and this was immediately followed by another for the expulsion of the order from Paris, the university being installed in possession of their vacated premises. Concurrently with this measure, both history and natural science began to be cultivated with a certain success. Then came the French Revolu tion. On Sept. 15, 1793, the universities and colleges throughout France, together with the faculties of theology, medicine, juris prudence and arts, were abolished by a decree of the convention, and the whole system of national education may be said to have • remained in abeyance, until, in i8o8, Napoleon I. promulgated the scheme of which many of its features still exist. The whole system of education, henceforth called the University of France, and including both secondary and primary, was made subject to the control and direction of the State. All France was divided into 17 districts, designated "academies," each administered by its own rector and council, but subject to the supreme authority of the minister of public instruction, and representing certain facul ties which varied at different centres, in conformity with the new scheme of distribution for the entire country.

Lille, Lyons and Rennes.

While three new "academies"— those of Lille, Lyons and Rennes—date their commencement from 1808, many of the pre-existing centres were completely suppressed. In some cases, however, the effacement of an ancient institution was avoided by investing it with new importance, as at Grenoble; in others, the vacated premises were appropriated to new uses con nected with the department, as at Avignon, Cahors and Perpignan.

Institution of "Free Faculties..

In 1895 the Government was prevailed upon to sanction the institution of certain "free faculties," as they were termed, to be placed under the direction of the bishop, and depending for support upon voluntary con tributions, and each including a faculty of theology, the best known being those of Paris and Lille. The faculty at Marseille, already mentioned, was now called upon to unite with the Academie of Aix, its faculties being restricted to mathematics and natural science (including a medical school), while faculties of law and philosophy were fixed at Aix, which possesses also the univer sity library properly so termed. In the capital itself, the Uni versity of Paris and the Ecole Pratique des Hautes etudes carried on the work of higher instruction independently of each other— the former with faculties of Protestant theology, law, medicine, science, letters and chemistry, distributed over the Quartier Latin; the latter with schools of mathematics, natural science, history, philology, and history of religions centred at the Sorbonne.

In 1896, the higher education of France was decentralized and the existing academies, consisting of isolated faculties, were con verted into regional universities, while the Sorbonne, from being the University of France became the University of Paris. The total number of universities, including that of Alger, was 16 (since increased to 17 by the recovery of Strasbourg).