France in the 18th and 19th Centuries

The last quarter of the 19th century saw the growth of an other type of university—that endowed by individual munificence. Cornell university was founded with an original gift from Ezra Cornell of $5oo,000, later increased through other gifts and profits on the sale of land scrip which Mr. Cornell bought for the university, to $5,381,925. As Cornell receives State aid for three of its colleges and is also a Land Grant college, it is not a typical example of the endowed institution. Johns Hopkins uni versity, opened 1876, was founded by Johns Hopkins, a merchant of Baltimore, who bequeathed $700,000 for the establishment of a university and a hospital. Leland Stanford Jr. university was founded by Senator Stanford, of California, with a gift (1885) of 90,00o ac. of land in California; this initial gift was later in creased by his bequest and by deeds from Mrs. Stanford, to a total endowment of more than $25,000,000. An outstanding ex ample is the University of Chicago (incorporated 189o) to which John D. Rockefeller, from 1889 to 191o, has given a total of A more recent instance of large endowment is Duke university, for which in 1924, Mr. J. B. Duke made a large gift.

Organization and Work.

The American college, although it is the outgrowth of the English colleges of Oxford and of Cam bridge, has developed into an institution which has no counterpart in Europe. The college course of study, at first three years in length, was soon extended to four years, and the classes are uni formly known as the freshman, the sophomore, the junior and the senior. The traditional degree which crowns the college course is that of Bachelor of Arts (A.B.). The studies ordinarily insisted on in the case of candidates for this degree are Latin, Greek, mathematics, English, philosophy, political economy, history, at least one modern European language (French or German), and at least one natural science. The degrees of Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Bachelor of Philosophy (Ph.B.), and Bachelor of Letters (B.L.) are conferred by some colleges upon students who have pursued systematic courses of study which do not include Greek or the Latin required for the degree of Bachelor of Arts.

Each college, however small or ill-equipped, exercises a help ful local influence. Seventy-five per cent of all college students attend an institution within their own States. Few colleges have a national constituency, and even in these cases an overwhelming preponderance of the students come from the immediate neigh bourhood. This explains, in a measure, the powerful influence which the college has exercised in the life of the nation. While hardly more than one in a hundred of the white male youth of the country has had a college education, yet the college graduates have furnished more than one-half of all the presidents of the United States, most of the justices of the Supreme Court, about one-half of the cabinet officers and United States senators, and nearly one-third of the House of Representatives. Before the

Revolution II colleges were founded. From 1776 to 1800, 12 more were added; from 1800 to 183o, 33; from 183o to 1865, i8o; from 1865 to 1899, 25o; from 190o to 1925, 75. Their standards, efficiency and equipment are very diverse, many of the so-called colleges being less effective than some of the better organized secondary schools.

Putting aside tentative attempts to develop genuine uni versity instruction much earlier, it may safely be said that the opening of the Johns Hopkins university at Baltimore in 1876 began the movement to organize carefully advanced study and research, requiring a college education of those who wish to enter upon it. This is university instruction properly so called, and though found elsewhere it is given chiefly at 26 institutions: University of California, Catholic University of America, Univer sity of Chicago, Clark university, Columbia university, Cornell university, Harvard university, University of Illinois, Indiana university, State University of Iowa, Johns Hopkins university, University of Kansas, University of Michigan, University of Minnesota, University of Missouri, University of Nebraska, Uni versity of North Carolina, Northwestern university, Ohio State university, University of Pennsylvania, Princeton university, Stan ford university, University of Virginia, Washington university, University of Wisconsin and Yale university. In addition, all these institutions, except the Catholic University of America, also main tain colleges.

The combination of collegiate and university instruction under one corporation and one executive administration is distinctive of higher education in the United States, and its chief source of strength. The crowning honour of the university student is the degree of Ph.D., although that of A.M.—obtainable in less time and much easier conditions—is also sought. The minimum period of study accepted for the degree of Ph.D. is two years after obtaining the bachelor's degree; but in practice, three, and even four, years of study are found necessary. In addition to carrying on an investigation in the field of his main subject of study, the candidate for the degree of Ph.D. is usually required to pass examinations on one or two subordinate subjects, to possess a reading khowledge of French and German (often of Latin as well), and to submit—usually in printed form—the dissertation which embodies the results of his researches. The methods of instruction in the universities are the lecture, discussion and work in laboratory or seminar—the latter transplanted from the Ger man universities. The degree of Master of Arts is conferred upon students who, after one year of university residence and study, pass certain prescribed examinations. This degree, like those of D.D., S.T.D., and LL.D., is often conferred by colleges and universities as a purely honorary distinction. The degree of Ph.D. is not so conferred any longer by the best universities.