France in the 18th and 19th Centuries

Welsh Universities.

The University of Wales, which re ceived the royal charter in 1893, is composed of the university col leges of Aberystwyth, Bangor, Cardiff, and Swansea (added in 1920). St. David's college at Lampeter was founded in 1822 for the purpose of educating clergymen in the principles of the estab lished Church of England and Wales, mainly for the supply of the Welsh dioceses, but, although affiliated to both Oxford and Cam bridge, retained its independence and also the right of conferring the degrees of bachelor of arts and of divinity. Bangor, in North Wales, on the other hand, which received its charter in 1885, is designed to "provide instruction in all the branches of a liberal education except theology." (J. B. Mu. ; C. BR.) History.—The first white settlers who came to North America were typical. representatives of those European peoples who had made more progress in civilization than any other in the world. Those settlers, in particular those from England and from Hol land, brought with them the most advanced ideas of the time on the subject of education. The conditions of life in the New World emphasized the need of schools and colleges, and among the earliest public acts of the settlers were provisions to establish them. The General Court of Massachusetts in 1636 made the first appropriation for what was to become Harvard college, tak ing its name in honour of the minister, John Harvard, who died in 1638, leaving his library and one-half of his property, having a value of 1.800, to the new institution.

Through religious zeal or philanthropy colleges were founded as far south as Virginia, and no fewer than ten of these institutions were in operation in 1776. Their present names and the dates of their foundation are: Harvard university (1636) ; College of Wil liam and Mary (1693) ; Yale university (i7or) ; Princeton uni versity (1746) ; Washington and Lee university ; Uni versity of Pennsylvania (1751) ; Columbia university Brown university (1764) ; Rutgers college (1766) ; and Dart mouth college (r77o).

These colonial colleges, though in some cases in receipt of money grants from Governments, had owed their origin to private initiative and were privately controlled. The 19th century was to see the growth of a different group, the State tax-supported universities, destined to become one of the important and charac teristic American types. While some of these institutions had their beginning in the 18th century (North Carolina, established 1789, opened 1795), the most notable early example of this type was the University of Virginia which, through the influence of Thomas Jefferson, was established by legislative act in 1819 though not opened until 1825. By 1894 all States south and west of Pennsylvania had established such universities, and in 1917 Rutgers university was designated as the State University of New Jersey. The only States not having State tax-supported universi

ties are Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Pennsylvania and New York. The distinguishing characteristics of the typical State tax-supported university are : (r) creation and direct sup port by the State government, (2) absence of any denominational control, (3) the State's share in the selection of trustees, (4) free, or nominal, tuition to students living within the State.

Another group of colleges which developed during the i9th century was the Land Grant colleges (q.v.) which owed their existence to the Morrill Act, passed by Congress in 1862. This act gave to the States a large amount of public land, 30,00o ac. for each member of congress from the State, for the establishment of colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts. Such colleges were to be started by 1874 but the exact method of their creation was left to the States which met the problem in different ways. In 18 States, the appropriation was added to the endowment of the State universities, in three, Massachusetts, New Jersey and New York, it was turned over to endowed institutions, the Massa chusetts Institute of Technology, Rutgers college and Cornell university. The remaining States established new institutions.

Meanwhile colleges for women (see WOMEN'S COLLEGES) had been growing up since the middle of the second quarter of the century. Though women were not entirely excluded from existing colleges—Oberlin was co-educational from its establishment in 1833—the opportunities open to them were so limited that their demand for college training could be met only by the formation of new institutions. The foundation of Mount Holyoke seminary in 1837 was followed by that of Elmira college in 1853. Vassar (incorporated 1861, opened 1865) dates from the Civil War, and after it came Wells (1868), Wellesley (1871, 1875), Smith (1871, 1875), Hunter (1871), Bryn Mawr (1881, 1885), etc., all established as independent colleges. Barnard college (1889, in corporated in the Educational System of Columbia university in 1900) and Radcliffe (1879, affiliated with Harvard in 1892) are examples of a different type, the college for women established in a university parallel to a college for men. Michigan, Illinois, Missouri and California began to admit women in 187o, and now no State-tax-supported university is entirely closed to women, though Virginia admits them to graduate and professional courses only. Of the endowed universities, Cornell admitted women by 1872 and Stanford and Chicago have been co-educational from their beginning. In 1926 the number of women studying in American colleges and universities was 313,163, i.e., 38% of the total number of students. This number included 247,793 under graduates, 12,341 graduate students, and 5,822 in professional schools of law, medicine, education, etc.