The Into sultan, Maitinud IL, made great changes with regard to the high functions of the empire. A considerable number of subordinate places, especially in the ports of the dcftcrdar (finance) was abolished, and important changes were made concerning the rauk of the different functionaries, who all wear a kind of European uniform. The changes in the army were radical : the Janissaries were exterminate,', and the regular troops received a European orgauisation. The general-field marshal has still the name of Serasker, or Serasker-Pasha. The second in rank is now the Beyler-Bey Vizir, or the commander of the Sultan's life-guard. The beyler-bey vizir has been substituted for the bostanji bashi, a dignity which was abolished, like that of the mirValem men tioned above. The army, foot as well as horse, is divided into ' ferik,' or divisions commanded by a ferik-pasha. Each ferik is divided into ' liwa,' or brigades commanded by a miri-liwa-pasha; a Uwe contains two alai; or regiments commanded by a miri-fila1-bey, or colonel ; an Mai is composed of four tabur,' or battalions, commanded by a bin bashi, or major ; each tabor has eight 'buluk,' or companies, com manded by a yilz-bashi, or captain ; and a bulnk is composed of eight ' on.' or sections, each commanded by an on-bashi, or corporal. The military force of the porte, according to its new organisation, consists of 80 regiments composing the active army, which numbers 178,680 men ; and a reserve (radii) of 148,620 men, making a total of 327,360 men, including infantry, cavalry, and all grades. This number how ever, does not include the contingents of the tributary provinces, or of those parts of the empire that are not yet subject to the regular recruiting law ; neither does it comprise the irregular troops or occa sional auxiliaries raised in emergencies of the empire.
At the beginning of 1S53 the Turkish navy was composed of 6 men of-war carrying 130 to 74 guns each ; 10 frigates, with 60 to 40 guns each ; 6 corvettes, with 26 to 22 guns each ; 14 brigs, carrying 20 to 12 guns each ; 16 critters, schooners, &c., with 12 to 4 guns each ; 6 steam-frigates, of 800 to 450 horse-power ; and 12 corvettes and smaller vessels—in all 70 vessels, manned by 3400 sailors and 4000 marines. Several of these vessels however were destroyed by the Russian fleet, under Admiral Nachimoff, off Sinope, November 30, 1853.
All the officers, attendants, soldiers, and servants employed in the seraglio amounted in former times to 12,000 'swords,' that is, 'men,' besides the females : the number of 'swords' has been in recent times greatly diminished. The first officer of the harem (a word which signifies 'the apartment of the women'), and of the whole seraglio of the Sultan, is the Kielar-Agha (' the master of the girls'), who is also called Babes-Seadet-Agha, or 'matter of the door of happiness.' He has under him many subordinate officers. The women of the harem are divided into five classes LI, Kddin, or 'wives of the sultan,' in number from four to seven ; 2, Grdiklli, or 'chamber-maids,' among whom the Sultan usually chooses his kiklin. Those who are pre ferred by the Snitsn are called Ikbal, or ' children of happiness ; and Khass-odalik, or ' private women of the sultan.' In Europe they are generally called Odalisk, which is not correct. 3, Usti, or ' mistresses,' generally called Khalftlh, or 'attendants,' divided into takim,' or companies of thirty women each ; 4, Shagird, or apprentices; 5, Jariyeh, or 'slaves.
Mahmnd 11. also introduced many remarkable changes into the system of scientific education. lie improved the school for engineers founded by Selim III., and he founded a school for architects, and another for students of medicine : the latter are taught Turkish, Arabic, and French ; anatomy, physiology, materia medics, and therapeutics ; physics and chemistry.
The ordinary revenue of Turkey, according to M. Ubicini, is 6,724,400/. sterling, derived from tithes, land-tax, poll-tax, customs duties, indirect taxes, 276,000/. from the Egyptian tribute, 18,4001. from Wallachia, the same amount from Servia, and 9,200/. of tribute from Moldavia. The ordinary expenditure is stated at 6,922,0001., composed of the following sums :—Cilvil list of the Sultan, 700,000t. ; allowances to the Sultan's mother and glisters, 67,2801.; army, 2,760,000G; navy, 345,000G; artillery, fortresses, &c., 276,000G; public functionaries, 1,794,0001.; grants for works of public utility, 92,000G; religions establishments, 115,0001.; subvention to the Ottoman bank, 276,0001.; life-annuities in compensation of fiefs, 404,800/.
Inhabitaste—The inhabitants are divided into two great classes— the Turks, or, more correctly, Turks-Oermanlis, who are the ruling race; and the Hayes, that Ii, 'the flock,' who are the ancient inhabits ants of the countries conquered by the Turks-Osmanlis. The Rayas, who are Christians, except some pagan tribes, are subject to the capitation or poll-tax, which the Osmanlis do not pay : they have the exercise of their religion with some restrictions, and they are dressed in a different way from the Turks. In general the Rayne, although they form communities and have their local authorities, are entirely in the position and have all the disadvantages of a subdued race. The Raysa are far more numerous than the Turks, especially in Europe : they belong to different nations. Several nations which have an origin different from that of the Turks-Osmanlis are nevertheless not reckoned among the Rayaa, because they have adopted the Mohammedan religion. To this class belong a great number of Kurd, Arabic, and Tartar tribes, the Mohammedan Bosniaks, and the Albanians, the inhabitants of ancient Epirus. Foreigners in Turkey are considered as Hayes, but they are protected by the authority of their ambassadors and consuls. In 1839 an imperial decree was issued, by which great privileges were granted to the Rapti, especially with regard to the administration of justice between them and the Turks, and the payment of taxes. This decree, which introduced the tnnzimat or reformed system into the empire, has remained a dead letter in most of the provinces. It is opposed by the Turks, who have so long enjoyed an ascendancy over the Reyes, and who have- risen in rebellion in some of the provinces in defence of their old privileges. Since the outbreak of the war with Russia, the Sultan and Lis government have given repeated orders for the strict execution of the tanzimst, which, it carried fairly out, will put an end to all the grievances of which the Christians have long and justly complained. By a special decree in 1855, the Sultan ordered the reception of the evidence of Christians by the tribunals.