Ussr

Historical.

The early military history of Russia was marked by invasions by the Huns (A.D. 376) and partial conquest by Tatars (1223) followed by strong Tatar influence, by a Tatar war (1380), the burning of Moscow (1383), and by an invasion by Tamerlane (1395). Firearms and cannon were introduced into the country by Ivan the Great in 1475. The year 1479 was marked by a serious Tatar invasion, repulsed by Svenigorod in 1481. A long war with Poland lasted from 1506 to 1523, followed in the next century by another, in which the Russians were victorious, in 1654. The progress of Russian power under Peter the Great (1689-1725) and under Catherine II. (1762-96) was phenomenal. In a war with Sweden (I 700) Peter suffered defeat by Charles II. at Narva, but in 1709 the tables were turned in the decisive battle of Pultowa. The year 1711 was marked by war with Turkey, 1715 by great extensions of territory over Finland, Estonia and Livonia. In 1769-84 the Crimea was successfully invaded, and the dismem berment of Poland under Catherine followed in 1772-95. In 1796 an unsuccessful war was undertaken against Persia. Suvorov, the great Russian soldier, in 1799 led the army which, in con junction with the Austrians, checked the French in Italy. Decem ber 1805 marked defeat at the hands of Napoleon at Austerlitz, and September 1809 defeat by the Turks in the Silistria area. War with France, which opened in June 1812, was noted by de feats at Smolensk (Aug. 17) and the Borodino (Sept. 7) but still more so by the historic burning of Moscow (Oct. 15) which brought disaster to Napoleon's veteran army and the turn in his fortunes. In October 1813 the Emperor (Alexander I) was pres ent at the Battle of Leipzig, and in March 1814 at the Allied entry into Paris. War again broke out with Persia (1826-28) and with Turkey in 1828-29. The year 183o marked the Polish war of independence, 1840 the failure of an expedition against Khiva, 1848-49 the participation of Russia in the Hungarian war. In 1853 Russian forces were concentrated on the frontier of Turkey, and there followed the Crimean War (q.v.) that ended in March 1856. Another insurrection in Poland occurred in 1863. In 1864 victories were gained over the Caucasus tribes, and in 1866 there was war with Bokhara with indecisive results. Samarkand was taken in 1868. Russia was neutral in the Franco-Prussian war of 187o, but the lessons learned thereby were embodied in a re organization of the army in 1871. In 1873 Khiva was taken. In 1875 there was war with Khokand which resulted in annexation in 1876. Enthusiasm for the cause of Bulgaria led to war with Turkey in 1877-78. In 1879 the severe battle of Geok-Tepe was fought against the Tekke-Turkomans (Sept. 9) against whom fur ther operations resulted in the siege and capture of that place in January 1881, and their submission to Skobeleff in April. In 1884 Mery was captured by Komaroff. Conventions with Persia (1884), an advance from Herat (Feb. 1885) and attack upon the Afghans (March 30) led to British preparations for war with Russia, but the question of the Afghan boundary was settled by negotiation in September.

The year 1898 was notable for the extension of Russian in fluence in China, the military occupation of Port Arthur, and a Russo-Japanese convention about Korea, which in course of time was followed by further developments that led to the appointment of a Russian viceroy in the far east (August 1903), to friction with Japan, and to the loss of Russian military prestige in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5. As an aftermath the year 1905 was marked by wide-spread disorder and bloodshed, which came to a head in Poland and elsewhere, and again broke out spasmodic ally during the years which intervened before the World War (q.v.). The pitiful tale of military heroism and disaster in the Russian theatre of war, of an army handicapped by corruption and by incompetency in the public services is told elsewhere.

A revolution in March 1917 led to the collapse of discipline in the army, to the accession of the Bolsheviks to power, to the con clusion on December 17 of an armistice with the Central Powers that was followed, in due course, by the abandonment by Russia of her obligations to her Allies. She thus failed to share in the victory for which her army, in the first stages of the war, had done so much to prepare. (There were still over 13 Russian in fantry divisions and over 4 of cavalry with a ration strength of 323,00o on the Caucasus and Azerbaijan front in June 1918.) The historic parallel of the French Revolution was followed after the war. Although, with foreign aid, some of the leaders and of the troops of the Tsarist army endeavoured to overthrow the new regime, the new "Red" Army of the Soviets owed its efficiency to the embodiment therein of the veterans of that army who changed their allegiance. As will be shown in due course, special measures have now been taken to prevent the parallel from going farther and resulting in the accession to power of a great military genius after the throes of a rule of violence. Since the conclusion of the World War in November 1918, the Red Army has been engaged in consolidating and in extending the rule of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics; the Russia of the military history which we have recalled but excluding Finland, the Baltic Provinces that are now the independent republics of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, Poland, and Bessarabia. The So viets included are those of Russia, the Ukraine, White Russia, Transcaucasia (Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia), and the Tur koman and Usbeg Republics, with a total population of about 140,000,000.

Present-day Army.

The army of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics of the present day is based upon a military system that was introduced in 1925. In principle it includes a permanent army and a militia, the object of the latter being to give military training to the surplus men in the annual contingent of nearly 1,000,000 men reaching the age for military service who cannot be trained in the permanent army. The special aspects of the system are the establishment of a powerful political depart ment (with troops at its disposal), the refusal to entrust the armed defence of the Union to any but "workers," and the ap plication of compulsory military service to both sexes. Equipment with automatic rifles, and specialization in chemical warfare are other features.

Study of what is known about the present-day army leads to the conclusion that the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics is the most "militarist" state in the world, in spite of the fact that for over five centuries no invasion of Russian territory has ever been crowned with ultimate success. In his dissertation on War, Clausewitz wrote that Russia could not be conquered by invading armies but rather by political crises and revolution, and it may possibly be assumed that the object of this vast military organiza tion is intended mainly to secure the despotic rule of a small minority. According to Press reports, especially when manoeuvres or military exercises on a large scale are being undertaken, con stant appeals are made by the authorities for defence against what, to other countries, appear to be purely imaginary dangers of invasion or attack. The League of Nations Armaments Year book, now the standard authority on the armies of the world, con tains a special note to the effect that, in dealing with the Russian army, the documents which are obtainable do not suffice to pro vide adequate information on essential points. This deficiency must be taken into consideration in studying the notes on the present day Russian army which follow.