and have water- and wind-mills: with the latter the sails do not move perpendicularly, as with us, but horizontally around the axle, looking like an immense horizontal mill-wheel, upon which the wind acts at the sides (p1. 70, Jig. r, background). Their water-mills are also peculiar: the water falls from above upon a hori zontal wheel, which turns one of the horizontal millstones, the other being stationary, and so grinds the corn, which is directed between the stones by a funnel (p7. 74, Jig. 5).
Agriculture. —Among the lower classes of the people agriculture is very primitive, as is shown by the plough of the South-Turkish races. The wandering hordes cultivate the ground wherever they may happen to go.
Art and can be said concerning the artistic per formances of these nations. Their music, in which they indeed take much pleasure, is undeveloped, monotonous, and often melancholy; they have various musical instruments (p1. 71, Jig. 3). They often (lance to the music, and the dances, which are frequently very absurd, seem originally to have had a religious significance. Plate 75 (Jig. 8)shows the bear-dance of the Ostyaks, which is much in vogue among the northern tribes. They twist their bodies into the ugliest and most unnatural contortions during the dance. They have done better in poetry, particularly the Turkish and Finnish tribes, whose epics are of some importance. All of them take pleasure in fairy-tales, of which they have many, and of which the greater part, at least among the Mongolians, have an Indian origin. In their lyric productions there is real poetic feeling.
Intellectual majority of individuals among, all branches have good natural powers. Their understanding, indeed, prevails over the imagination, but of what development the latter is capable is shown by the Finns and other of the northern tribes. Where it seems wanting, as in Japan and in China, it is only in consequence of their historic des tiny. For the life of thought only develops itself where the inhabitants have learned to struggle with unfavorable natural surroundings and yet preserve their own mental freedom. As a class they are highly gifted, as their historic deeds, their successful wars in Asia and Europe, and still more their capability of founding great kingdoms, prove. It is true that Attila's kingdom in Europe and the great Mongolian kingdoms in Asia have not lasted, but the kingdom of the Turks and the power of the Manchoos have stood firm. What is of more interest to us is
the high development of certain branches of this race—the Japanese in the far East, the Turks in the South, and the Finns in the North. Many of them are but half civilized (Kirgheez, Mongolians, etc.); others remain barbarous, as the Yakoots and the Samoieds, but in their case unfavorable natural surroundings have prevented the development of civilization.
regards character, travellers give us very different descriptions. As principal traits of the races at large we may mention great indolence, which they display both in their wandering life and in their religion; utter disregard for others, which often assumes the form of terrible cruelty; servile and revengeful minds and a barbarous fondness for destruction. The feeling of gratitude is unknown. The greater part of them are described as dirty and greedy, but this is to be understood of those living in a state of nature, and by no means of all. The Tunguses admire manly activity and independence; the mountain-Calmucks of the Altai are good-natured, chatty, and easily placated.
Family is allowed and practised, but the first wife is the chief and her children have precedence. Inasmuch as the women, on account of the inheritance coming through them, must be purchased from the fathers-in law, the poorer classes generally have but one wife. The different wives live harmoniously together, and after the father's death the son inherits them, with the exception of his own mother; the widow of a brother goes to the surviving brother. The women respect the mar riage-tie. This description of the Mongolians given by Marco Polo serves essentially for the whole of this race, only that among the more debased the position of woman is more miserable. For instance, the offering of wives or daughters to honored strangers is considered an act of politeness, and not at all a debasement. The idea also originally prevailed widely among them, and is still believed in Siberia, that man stands nearer to the gods, and that woman is not so holy. Only among the very lowest are the marriage ceremonies dispensed with; among the better classes they are numerous and elaborate. We have already alluded (p. 268) to the curious costume of the Kirgheez brides (p1. 71, fig. 3).